{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7160221020","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","title":"A review of the applications and tasks of large language models in the legal field","display_name":"A review of the applications and tasks of large language models in the legal field","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-05-04","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7160221020","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3836"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","pdf_url":"https://peerj.com/articles/cs-3836.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://peerj.com/articles/cs-3836.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109779535","display_name":"Gaojun Peng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gaojun Peng","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135227535","display_name":"Dapeng Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4735-7651"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2722730","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0106qb496","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2722730"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dapeng Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","Key Laboratory of Cybersecurity in North Border of Inner Mongolia Autonomous, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4735-7651","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Cybersecurity in North Border of Inner Mongolia Autonomous, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2722730"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135174325","display_name":"Gang Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2722730","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University","ror":"https://ror.org/0106qb496","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2722730"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gang Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","Key Laboratory of Cybersecurity in North Border of Inner Mongolia Autonomous, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Cybersecurity in North Border of Inner Mongolia Autonomous, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2722730"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100529329","display_name":"Shuang Guo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2779-6444"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shuang Guo","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligent Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135172067","display_name":"Lina Su","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lina Su","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Humanities, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Humanities, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101246906","display_name":"Tianxue Yu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55654194","display_name":"Inner Mongolia University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05564e019","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tianxue Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Humanities, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Humanities, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55654194"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"apc_paid":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.43191068,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"e3836","last_page":"e3836"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13643","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Law","score":0.6449000239372253,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13643","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Law","score":0.6449000239372253,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14013","display_name":"Legal Language and Interpretation","score":0.07180000096559525,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.028999999165534973,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/normative","display_name":"Normative","score":0.6194999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-research","display_name":"Legal research","score":0.5011000037193298},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.4474000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.3917999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-case","display_name":"Legal case","score":0.3880999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-legal-studies","display_name":"Empirical legal studies","score":0.38530001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generative-grammar","display_name":"Generative grammar","score":0.37439998984336853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-profession","display_name":"Legal profession","score":0.3716999888420105}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44725695","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q288156","display_name":"Normative","level":2,"score":0.6194999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55587333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133029","display_name":"Engineering ethics","level":1,"score":0.5113999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C522695570","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6517578","display_name":"Legal research","level":2,"score":0.5011000037193298},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4474000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.42910000681877136},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.3921999931335449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.3917999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778049185","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2334719","display_name":"Legal case","level":2,"score":0.3880999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100701532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5374244","display_name":"Empirical legal studies","level":3,"score":0.38530001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.37439998984336853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170692843","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15987302","display_name":"Legal profession","level":2,"score":0.3716999888420105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3278999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20162079","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1151406","display_name":"Case-based reasoning","level":2,"score":0.3271999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.3262999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.32089999318122864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.31200000643730164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C102600418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6517507","display_name":"Legal expert system","level":3,"score":0.29440000653266907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.29420000314712524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.28940001130104065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184356942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830382","display_name":"Best practice","level":2,"score":0.28610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779439875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Natural language understanding","level":3,"score":0.28529998660087585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C521078695","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4180175","display_name":"Legal practice","level":2,"score":0.26980000734329224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48764862","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898871","display_name":"Judicial review","level":2,"score":0.26350000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.26350000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993995455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3150005","display_name":"Legal document","level":2,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.2554999887943268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.2524999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C503263630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3655952","display_name":"Legal ethics","level":2,"score":0.25040000677108765}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","pdf_url":"https://peerj.com/articles/cs-3836.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:69ed1e3e28c2480ebff56ba6d7697781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/69ed1e3e28c2480ebff56ba6d7697781","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science, Vol 12, p e3836 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3836","pdf_url":"https://peerj.com/articles/cs-3836.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5995392203330994,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7158905941","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62472237","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322868","display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7160221020.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7160221020.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":42,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2033681837","https://openalex.org/W2101746535","https://openalex.org/W2120007278","https://openalex.org/W2551396370","https://openalex.org/W2742145520","https://openalex.org/W2858159822","https://openalex.org/W2962772482","https://openalex.org/W2963477629","https://openalex.org/W2991316439","https://openalex.org/W2998733856","https://openalex.org/W3014192451","https://openalex.org/W3017474822","https://openalex.org/W3034368386","https://openalex.org/W3099667794","https://openalex.org/W3106268368","https://openalex.org/W3209696639","https://openalex.org/W4239025696","https://openalex.org/W4288345438","https://openalex.org/W4293649366","https://openalex.org/W4309674289","https://openalex.org/W4321009772","https://openalex.org/W4322718191","https://openalex.org/W4378465439","https://openalex.org/W4382618722","https://openalex.org/W4386655610","https://openalex.org/W4386942328","https://openalex.org/W4387560241","https://openalex.org/W4391463016","https://openalex.org/W4392131573","https://openalex.org/W4392594189","https://openalex.org/W4392619035","https://openalex.org/W4399455299","https://openalex.org/W4400033128","https://openalex.org/W4400222710","https://openalex.org/W4400377801","https://openalex.org/W4400451409","https://openalex.org/W4404294063","https://openalex.org/W4404534210","https://openalex.org/W6947987514","https://openalex.org/W6966723275","https://openalex.org/W7102394967","https://openalex.org/W7127404593"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"rapid":[1],"advancement":[2],"of":[3,11,64,82,111,117,135,187],"artificial":[4,214],"intelligence":[5],"has":[6],"significantly":[7],"accelerated":[8],"the":[9,61,65,80,112,120,126,168],"development":[10,133],"intelligent":[12,48],"judicial":[13,144,148],"systems,":[14],"bringing":[15],"profound":[16],"transformations":[17],"to":[18,52,79,92],"both":[19],"legal":[20,23,42,45,66,86,121,153,173,189,213],"practice":[21],"and":[22,47,57,74,98,108,114,131,152,162,184,203],"research.":[24],"As":[25],"a":[26,106],"major":[27,169],"breakthrough":[28],"in":[29,41,84,119,212],"natural":[30],"language":[31],"processing,":[32],"Large":[33],"Language":[34],"Models":[35],"(LLMs)":[36],"have":[37],"demonstrated":[38],"substantial":[39,77],"potential":[40],"text":[43],"analysis,":[44],"reasoning,":[46],"decision":[49],"support":[50],"due":[51],"their":[53],"powerful":[54],"semantic":[55],"understanding":[56],"generative":[58],"capabilities.":[59],"However,":[60],"intrinsic":[62],"characteristics":[63],"domain\u2014such":[67],"as":[68],"its":[69],"professional":[70],"rigor,":[71],"logical":[72],"strictness,":[73],"normative":[75],"authority\u2014pose":[76],"challenges":[78,170],"deployment":[81],"LLMs":[83,118,174],"real-world":[85],"settings.":[87],"In":[88],"particular,":[89],"issues":[90],"related":[91],"interpretability,":[93],"knowledge":[94],"timeliness,":[95],"reasoning":[96,182],"consistency,":[97,183],"hallucination":[99,179],"remain":[100],"critical":[101],"concerns.":[102],"This":[103],"survey":[104],"provides":[105],"structured":[107],"systematic":[109],"review":[110],"applications":[113],"task-oriented":[115],"research":[116,195,211],"domain.":[122],"We":[123,139],"first":[124],"summarize":[125],"architectural":[127],"characteristics,":[128],"training":[129],"paradigms,":[130],"technical":[132],"paths":[134],"representative":[136],"legal-specific":[137],"LLMs.":[138],"then":[140],"examine":[141],"three":[142],"core":[143],"tasks\u2014similar":[145],"case":[146],"retrieval,":[147],"examination":[149],"question":[150],"answering,":[151],"judgment":[154],"prediction\u2014by":[155],"analyzing":[156],"commonly":[157],"used":[158],"datasets,":[159],"evaluation":[160],"metrics,":[161],"methodological":[163],"advancements.":[164],"Furthermore,":[165],"we":[166,192],"synthesize":[167],"faced":[171],"by":[172],"across":[175],"these":[176],"tasks,":[177],"including":[178],"phenomena,":[180],"insufficient":[181],"limited":[185],"integration":[186],"domain-specific":[188],"knowledge.":[190],"Finally,":[191],"outline":[193],"future":[194],"directions":[196],"aimed":[197],"at":[198],"enhancing":[199],"reliability,":[200],"domain":[201],"adaptability,":[202],"practical":[204],"applicability,":[205],"thereby":[206],"providing":[207],"guidance":[208],"for":[209],"subsequent":[210],"intelligence.":[215]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-22T07:34:49.880490","created_date":"2026-05-05T00:00:00"}