{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7140121211","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","title":"A review of multi-agent deep reinforcement learning for resource allocation in beyond 5G network slicing: solutions, challenges and future research directions","display_name":"A review of multi-agent deep reinforcement learning for resource allocation in beyond 5G network slicing: solutions, challenges and future research directions","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-23","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7140121211","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123651871","display_name":"Zhiyi Cui","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885383172","display_name":"National University of Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/00bw8d226","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhiyi Cui","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130343718","display_name":"Faizan Qamar","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885383172","display_name":"National University of Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/00bw8d226","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Faizan Qamar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006763163","display_name":"Syed Hussain Ali Kazmi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9487-7441"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885383172","display_name":"National University of Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/00bw8d226","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Syed Hussain Ali Kazmi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034364966","display_name":"Khairul Akram Zainol Ariffin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3627-556X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885383172","display_name":"National University of Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/00bw8d226","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Khairul Akram Zainol Ariffin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3627-556X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885383172"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5087501959","display_name":"Ghazanfar Ali Safdar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8969-1044"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I147554453","display_name":"University of Bedfordshire","ror":"https://ror.org/0400avk24","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ghazanfar Ali Safdar","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science & Technology, Faculty of Creative Arts, Technologies, & Science, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science & Technology, Faculty of Creative Arts, Technologies, & Science, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056165063","display_name":"Muhammad Habib ur Rehman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7428-2272"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I147554453","display_name":"University of Bedfordshire","ror":"https://ror.org/0400avk24","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Habib ur Rehman","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science & Technology, Faculty of Creative Arts, Technologies, & Science, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science & Technology, Faculty of Creative Arts, Technologies, & Science, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"apc_paid":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"fwci":14.3214,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98293555,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"e3728","last_page":"e3728"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10714","display_name":"Software-Defined Networks and 5G","score":0.9793999791145325,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10714","display_name":"Software-Defined Networks and 5G","score":0.9793999791145325,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10273","display_name":"IoT and Edge/Fog Computing","score":0.005799999926239252,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13918","display_name":"Advanced Data and IoT Technologies","score":0.0007999999797903001,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.682699978351593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resource-allocation","display_name":"Resource allocation","score":0.6086999773979187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.5213000178337097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resource","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","score":0.4641999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.4381999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cellular-network","display_name":"Cellular network","score":0.41359999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.4032000005245209}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.682699978351593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6757000088691711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29202148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287260","display_name":"Resource allocation","level":2,"score":0.6086999773979187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.5213000178337097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206345919","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20380951","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","level":2,"score":0.4641999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.4381999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153646914","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q535695","display_name":"Cellular network","level":2,"score":0.41359999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.4032000005245209},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780609101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17156588","display_name":"Resource management (computing)","level":2,"score":0.3977000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.3889000117778778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137836250","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q984063","display_name":"Optimization problem","level":2,"score":0.3490000069141388},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.30250000953674316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.2881999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95491727","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q992968","display_name":"Mobile telephony","level":3,"score":0.2752000093460083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110994511","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q661020","display_name":"Next-generation network","level":3,"score":0.27129998803138733},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192126672","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068715","display_name":"Telecommunications network","level":2,"score":0.2583000063896179},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149672232","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q337048","display_name":"Adaptive optimization","level":2,"score":0.2542000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.25060001015663147}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:69bfcd4644af47c0825810c8a18d70ab","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/69bfcd4644af47c0825810c8a18d70ab","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science, Vol 12, p e3728 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3728","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":119,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W3082015744","https://openalex.org/W3153842551","https://openalex.org/W3156295478","https://openalex.org/W3159777983","https://openalex.org/W3191554163","https://openalex.org/W3203489455","https://openalex.org/W3216833280","https://openalex.org/W4206160132","https://openalex.org/W4213179670","https://openalex.org/W4221117686","https://openalex.org/W4221168031","https://openalex.org/W4243196094","https://openalex.org/W4281739120","https://openalex.org/W4283169335","https://openalex.org/W4285106921","https://openalex.org/W4285192988","https://openalex.org/W4286893914","https://openalex.org/W4292070198","https://openalex.org/W4294741352","https://openalex.org/W4306786778","https://openalex.org/W4312624510","https://openalex.org/W4313270738","https://openalex.org/W4313476909","https://openalex.org/W4313827185","https://openalex.org/W4315571337","https://openalex.org/W4318484030","https://openalex.org/W4319312862","https://openalex.org/W4320002804","https://openalex.org/W4327719810","https://openalex.org/W4361769489","https://openalex.org/W4376456343","https://openalex.org/W4379113536","https://openalex.org/W4379618830","https://openalex.org/W4385464783","https://openalex.org/W4385569618","https://openalex.org/W4386270128","https://openalex.org/W4386412368","https://openalex.org/W4387885667","https://openalex.org/W4388406660","https://openalex.org/W4388807198","https://openalex.org/W4389692475","https://openalex.org/W4391742624","https://openalex.org/W4391759571","https://openalex.org/W4391979101","https://openalex.org/W4392158412","https://openalex.org/W4392175541","https://openalex.org/W4392406041","https://openalex.org/W4393931315","https://openalex.org/W4394627428","https://openalex.org/W4394897041","https://openalex.org/W4395016054","https://openalex.org/W4395069551","https://openalex.org/W4398140924","https://openalex.org/W4398226337","https://openalex.org/W4398249507","https://openalex.org/W4399039158","https://openalex.org/W4399240107","https://openalex.org/W4399281470","https://openalex.org/W4399403138","https://openalex.org/W4399409514","https://openalex.org/W4399665736","https://openalex.org/W4399767883","https://openalex.org/W4400033766","https://openalex.org/W4400112745","https://openalex.org/W4400583089","https://openalex.org/W4401387542","https://openalex.org/W4401607588","https://openalex.org/W4401959331","https://openalex.org/W4401994184","https://openalex.org/W4402124701","https://openalex.org/W4402263009","https://openalex.org/W4402577364","https://openalex.org/W4402592483","https://openalex.org/W4402619211","https://openalex.org/W4402642157","https://openalex.org/W4402895002","https://openalex.org/W4403210262","https://openalex.org/W4403295007","https://openalex.org/W4403510263","https://openalex.org/W4403555635","https://openalex.org/W4403586397","https://openalex.org/W4403752951","https://openalex.org/W4403864140","https://openalex.org/W4403904960","https://openalex.org/W4404056768","https://openalex.org/W4404469495","https://openalex.org/W4404547052","https://openalex.org/W4404914591","https://openalex.org/W4404994188","https://openalex.org/W4405179117","https://openalex.org/W4405270484","https://openalex.org/W4405741882","https://openalex.org/W4405767845","https://openalex.org/W4405845137","https://openalex.org/W4405935944","https://openalex.org/W4405965591","https://openalex.org/W4406012168","https://openalex.org/W4406032997","https://openalex.org/W4406194169","https://openalex.org/W4406457686","https://openalex.org/W4406639316","https://openalex.org/W4407078819","https://openalex.org/W4407213500","https://openalex.org/W4407597155","https://openalex.org/W4407904428","https://openalex.org/W4408124985","https://openalex.org/W4408358643","https://openalex.org/W4408441524","https://openalex.org/W4408859847","https://openalex.org/W4409653875","https://openalex.org/W4410421718","https://openalex.org/W4410852353","https://openalex.org/W4412558189","https://openalex.org/W4413461189","https://openalex.org/W4413736352","https://openalex.org/W4413785377","https://openalex.org/W4414706528","https://openalex.org/W6929604176","https://openalex.org/W7131102488"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"rapid":[1],"development":[2],"of":[3,11,22,46,82,94,110,114,123,134,149,164,215],"emerging":[4],"technologies,":[5],"such":[6],"as":[7],"the":[8,19,43,52,56,79,107,121,131,155,161,170,184,205],"massive":[9],"Internet":[10],"Things":[12],"(IoT)":[13],"and":[14,35,64,100,146,151,180,197,212,228],"immersive":[15],"applications,":[16],"is":[17],"driving":[18],"resource":[20,57,141,144,231],"requirements":[21,67,81],"Beyond":[23],"Fifth":[24],"Generation":[25],"(B5G)":[26],"mobile":[27],"networks":[28],"to":[29,77,92],"evolve":[30],"in":[31,117,125,136,187,217,235],"a":[32,126,222],"more":[33],"complex":[34],"dynamic":[36,61],"direction.":[37],"Network":[38],"Slicing":[39],"(NS)":[40],"technology":[41],"enables":[42],"personalized":[44],"needs":[45],"different":[47],"services":[48],"by":[49,191],"logically":[50],"dividing":[51],"physical":[53],"network.":[54],"However,":[55],"competition":[58],"between":[59,208],"slices,":[60],"traffic":[62],"changes,":[63],"global":[65],"optimization":[66,116,148,193,214,233],"make":[68],"it":[69],"difficult":[70],"for":[71,112,225],"traditional":[72],"Resource":[73],"Allocation":[74],"(RA)":[75],"methods":[76,173,194],"satisfy":[78],"network":[80],"B5G.":[83,118],"Deep":[84],"Reinforcement":[85],"Learning":[86],"(DRL)":[87],"offers":[88],"an":[89],"intelligent":[90],"approach":[91,109],"RA":[93,113,124,135,172,213],"NS,":[95],"leveraging":[96],"its":[97],"autonomous":[98],"learning":[99],"adaptive":[101,143,229],"capabilities.":[102],"This":[103],"study":[104,159,220],"focused":[105],"on":[106,175],"multi-agent":[108,230],"DRL":[111,166,176,210],"NS":[115,216],"It":[119],"introduced":[120],"process":[122,163],"multi-slice":[127],"environment,":[128],"then":[129,168],"summarized":[130,160],"key":[132],"challenges":[133,185,207],"B5G":[137,189],"scenarios,":[138],"including":[139],"multi-domain":[140],"coordination,":[142],"orchestration,":[145],"joint":[147],"computation":[150],"communication":[152,237],"resources.":[153],"At":[154],"same":[156],"time,":[157],"this":[158,219],"training":[162],"Multi-Agent":[165],"(MADRL),":[167],"classified":[169],"recent":[171],"based":[174],"into":[177],"value-based,":[178],"policy-based":[179],"hybrid":[181],"methods.":[182],"Additionally,":[183],"faced":[186],"deploying":[188],"environments":[190],"current":[192],"are":[195,201],"highlighted,":[196],"future":[198,236],"research":[199],"directions":[200],"discussed.":[202],"By":[203],"analyzing":[204],"practical":[206],"advanced":[209],"algorithms":[211],"B5G,":[218],"lays":[221],"theoretical":[223],"foundation":[224],"designing":[226],"scalable":[227],"allocation":[232],"schemes":[234],"systems.":[238]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-30T13:55:48.251075","created_date":"2026-03-24T00:00:00"}