{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7135029675","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","title":"DeepRawNet: empowering deepfake audio detection through dynamic enhancements","display_name":"DeepRawNet: empowering deepfake audio detection through dynamic enhancements","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7135029675","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064505916","display_name":"Lubna A. Alharbi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5062-9486"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I72264486","display_name":"University of Tabuk","ror":"https://ror.org/04yej8x59","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lubna A. Alharbi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5062-9486","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085277045","display_name":"Jasim Alnahas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8572-3985"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I72264486","display_name":"University of Tabuk","ror":"https://ror.org/04yej8x59","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jasim Alnahas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Industrial Engineering Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Industrial Engineering Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128843300","display_name":"Ali Javed","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I173207729","display_name":"University of Engineering and Technology Taxila","ror":"https://ror.org/03v00ka07","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7882870","display_name":"University of Glasgow","ror":"https://ror.org/00vtgdb53","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7882870"]}],"countries":["GB","PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ali Javed","raw_affiliation_strings":["James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom","Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7882870"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090855388","display_name":"A\u2019aeshah Alhakamy","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0662-0185"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I72264486","display_name":"University of Tabuk","ror":"https://ror.org/04yej8x59","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"A\u2019aeshah Alhakamy","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0662-0185","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053995495","display_name":"Marriam Nawaz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2238-4645"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I173207729","display_name":"University of Engineering and Technology Taxila","ror":"https://ror.org/03v00ka07","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marriam Nawaz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128004913","display_name":"Hafiz Malik","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210130704","display_name":"University of Michigan\u2013Dearborn","ror":"https://ror.org/035wtm547","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210130704"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hafiz Malik","raw_affiliation_strings":["Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Dearborn, Michigan, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Michigan, Dearborn, Michigan, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210130704"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039477227","display_name":"Hafsa Ilyas","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I173207729","display_name":"University of Engineering and Technology Taxila","ror":"https://ror.org/03v00ka07","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hafsa Ilyas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Software Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I173207729"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128812665","display_name":"Faris Alfaifi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I72264486","display_name":"University of Tabuk","ror":"https://ror.org/04yej8x59","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Faris Alfaifi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Industrial Engineering Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Industrial Engineering Department, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I72264486"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"apc_paid":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.32819395,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"e3670","last_page":"e3670"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10201","display_name":"Speech Recognition and Synthesis","score":0.7157999873161316,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10201","display_name":"Speech Recognition and Synthesis","score":0.7157999873161316,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11309","display_name":"Music and Audio Processing","score":0.049800001084804535,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12357","display_name":"Digital Media Forensic Detection","score":0.042399998754262924,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/upsampling","display_name":"Upsampling","score":0.5479999780654907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolution","display_name":"Convolution (computer science)","score":0.5033000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/residual","display_name":"Residual","score":0.47269999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/discriminative-model","display_name":"Discriminative model","score":0.4643000066280365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.4212000072002411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/parametric-statistics","display_name":"Parametric statistics","score":0.41269999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/block","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","score":0.4032999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.38420000672340393}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8312000036239624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110384440","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143270","display_name":"Upsampling","level":3,"score":0.5479999780654907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45347329","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5166604","display_name":"Convolution (computer science)","level":3,"score":0.5033000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155512373","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287450","display_name":"Residual","level":2,"score":0.47269999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97931131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5282087","display_name":"Discriminative model","level":2,"score":0.4643000066280365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.4212000072002411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117251300","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1849855","display_name":"Parametric statistics","level":2,"score":0.41269999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777210771","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4927124","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","level":2,"score":0.4032999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3862000107765198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.38420000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.3781999945640564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.3779999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779227376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6505497","display_name":"Layer (electronics)","level":2,"score":0.37720000743865967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.37369999289512634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.32170000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.30709999799728394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2969000041484833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165064840","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321061","display_name":"Matching (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.2944999933242798},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.2883000075817108},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.2858999967575073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.2833999991416931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.2782000005245209},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161765866","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184748","display_name":"Codec","level":2,"score":0.27799999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64922751","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4650799","display_name":"Audio signal","level":3,"score":0.2768999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.25690001249313354}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4b91463749d8429d980f448c9c915ba9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4b91463749d8429d980f448c9c915ba9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science, Vol 12, p e3670 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3670","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","display_name":"Reduced inequalities","score":0.5848751068115234}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2937142395","https://openalex.org/W3116131730","https://openalex.org/W3120354059","https://openalex.org/W3132550238","https://openalex.org/W3135809943","https://openalex.org/W3170179936","https://openalex.org/W3198370097","https://openalex.org/W3207579445","https://openalex.org/W4210573742","https://openalex.org/W4220772625","https://openalex.org/W4220832730","https://openalex.org/W4225420087","https://openalex.org/W4226126880","https://openalex.org/W4285144065","https://openalex.org/W4287063346","https://openalex.org/W4296935332","https://openalex.org/W4311591887","https://openalex.org/W4312743281","https://openalex.org/W4319603224","https://openalex.org/W4321019893","https://openalex.org/W4372266958","https://openalex.org/W4378390180","https://openalex.org/W4379259900","https://openalex.org/W4382371735","https://openalex.org/W4382721438","https://openalex.org/W4383822462","https://openalex.org/W4385224813","https://openalex.org/W4386320359","https://openalex.org/W4387533986","https://openalex.org/W4388153402","https://openalex.org/W4388914468","https://openalex.org/W4389848468","https://openalex.org/W4389914235","https://openalex.org/W4390833111","https://openalex.org/W4391073896","https://openalex.org/W4391229131","https://openalex.org/W4391250897","https://openalex.org/W4392543668","https://openalex.org/W4399634815","https://openalex.org/W4402148298","https://openalex.org/W4403315572","https://openalex.org/W4403525055","https://openalex.org/W4408354101","https://openalex.org/W4411874050","https://openalex.org/W4417162982"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Background":[0],"The":[1],"generation":[2],"of":[3,14,37,95,221,256],"deepfake":[4,51,213,279],"audio":[5,50,79,87,212,280],"poses":[6],"significant":[7],"challenges":[8],"to":[9,34,56,126,169,194],"the":[10,92,104,112,119,133,143,165,203,253,259,270],"reliability":[11],"and":[12,44,60,77,171,176,191,199,227,232,242,247,275],"security":[13,59],"automatic":[15],"speaker":[16],"verification":[17],"(ASV)-based":[18],"systems.":[19],"ASV":[20,54],"systems":[21,55],"having":[22],"applications":[23],"in":[24,111,118,142,159,202,277],"fintech,":[25],"surveillance,":[26],"home":[27],"automation,":[28],"security,":[29],"etc":[30,66],".,":[31],"are":[32],"susceptible":[33],"a":[35,75,122,138,207,218],"variety":[36],"deepfake/voice":[38],"cloning":[39],"attacks,":[40,267,274],"including":[41,230],"speech":[42],"synthesis":[43],"voice":[45],"conversion":[46],"(VC).":[47],"Impostors":[48],"launch":[49],"attacks":[52],"on":[53,225],"compromise":[57],"their":[58],"cause":[61],"financial":[62],"losses,":[63],"data":[64],"breaches,":[65],".":[67],"Methods":[68],"To":[69],"combat":[70],"such":[71],"threats,":[72],"we":[73,102,163],"propose":[74],"robust":[76,188],"generalized":[78],"deepfakes":[80],"detection":[81],"framework,":[82],"DeepRawNet,":[83],"by":[84],"processing":[85],"raw":[86,160],"waveforms.":[88],"Specifically,":[89],"DeepRawNet":[90,183,257],"is":[91],"enhanced":[93,192],"version":[94],"RawNet2,":[96,120],"introduces":[97],"three":[98],"key":[99],"innovations:":[100],"(1)":[101],"employ":[103],"Parametric":[105],"Rectified":[106],"Linear":[107],"Unit":[108],"(PReLU)":[109],"activation":[110,167],"residual":[113,144],"blocks":[114],"over":[115],"Leaky":[116],"ReLU":[117],"introducing":[121],"learnable":[123],"negative":[124],"slope":[125],"enhance":[127],"adaptive":[128],"feature":[129],"extraction,":[130],"(2)":[131],"substituting":[132],"simple":[134],"convolution":[135,140],"layer":[136,141],"with":[137,185,238],"transpose":[139],"block":[145],"addresses":[146],"downsampling":[147],"issues":[148],"while":[149],"preserving":[150],"fine-grained":[151],"temporal":[152,197],"information":[153],"crucial":[154],"for":[155,211,269],"capturing":[156],"complex":[157,196],"patterns":[158,201],"audio,":[161,204],"(3)":[162],"incorporate":[164],"LogSoftmax":[166],"function":[168],"stabilize":[170],"optimize":[172],"learning":[173,189],"during":[174],"training":[175],"inference.":[177],"These":[178],"architectural":[179],"refinements":[180],"empower":[181],"our":[182,222],"model":[184,240],"improved":[186,254,262],"adaptability,":[187],"capabilities,":[190],"capacity":[193],"capture":[195],"dependencies":[198],"discriminative":[200],"making":[205],"it":[206],"more":[208],"effective":[209],"solution":[210],"detection.":[214],"Results":[215],"We":[216],"performed":[217],"rigorous":[219],"evaluation":[220],"proposed":[223],"method":[224],"ASVspoof2019-LA":[226],"ASVspoof2021-LA/DF":[228],"datasets,":[229],"algorithm-wise":[231],"cross-corpora":[233],"evaluation,":[234],"an":[235],"ablation":[236],"study":[237],"different":[239],"configurations,":[241],"comparison":[243],"against":[244,258],"baseline":[245],"models":[246],"existing":[248],"approaches.":[249],"Experimental":[250],"results":[251],"highlight":[252],"performance":[255],"ASVspoof":[260],"baselines,":[261],"generalization":[263],"across":[264],"diverse":[265],"spoofing":[266],"particularly":[268],"most":[271],"challenging":[272],"VC":[273],"effectiveness":[276],"combating":[278],"threats.":[281]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2026-03-13T00:00:00"}