{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127296407","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","title":"VAE-XGBoost: a hybrid intrusion detection system for next generation EV charging networks","display_name":"VAE-XGBoost: a hybrid intrusion detection system for next generation EV charging networks","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127296407","doi":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124873419","display_name":"Muhammad Asim","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I246743127","display_name":"The University of Agriculture, Peshawar","ror":"https://ror.org/02sp3q482","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Asim","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124896401","display_name":"Farrukh Sair","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I246743127","display_name":"The University of Agriculture, Peshawar","ror":"https://ror.org/02sp3q482","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Farrukh Sair","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035868697","display_name":"Muhammad Ishaq","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1963-5041"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I246743127","display_name":"The University of Agriculture, Peshawar","ror":"https://ror.org/02sp3q482","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Ishaq","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1963-5041","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Faculty of Management and Computer Sciences, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I246743127"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124890505","display_name":"Korhan Cengiz","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I138564716","display_name":"Prince Mohammad bin Fahd University","ror":"https://ror.org/03d64na34","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I138564716"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Korhan Cengiz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6594-8861","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I138564716"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5099524335","display_name":"Prof. Dr. Sedat AKLEYLEK","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121333","display_name":"Istinye University","ror":"https://ror.org/03081nz23","country_code":"TR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210121333"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I56085075","display_name":"University of Tartu","ror":"https://ror.org/03z77qz90","country_code":"EE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}],"countries":["EE","TR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sedat Akleylek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Engineering, Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey","Institute of Computer Science, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7005-6489","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Engineering, Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121333"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Computer Science, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124889911","display_name":"Nikola Ivkovi\u0107","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181343428","display_name":"University of Zagreb","ror":"https://ror.org/00mv6sv71","country_code":"HR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181343428"]}],"countries":["HR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nikola Ivkovi\u0107","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Vara\u017edin, Croatia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1730-2518","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Vara\u017edin, Croatia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181343428"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":5,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"apc_paid":{"value":1395,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1395},"fwci":5.4549,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94077999,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"e3506","last_page":"e3506"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10768","display_name":"Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure","score":0.611299991607666,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10768","display_name":"Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure","score":0.611299991607666,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13429","display_name":"Electricity Theft Detection Techniques","score":0.18250000476837158,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13038","display_name":"Internet of Things and AI","score":0.019899999722838402,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intrusion-detection-system","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","score":0.6764000058174133},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly-detection","display_name":"Anomaly detection","score":0.6550999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptability","display_name":"Adaptability","score":0.5927000045776367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resilience","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","score":0.5738999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/smart-grid","display_name":"Smart grid","score":0.48969998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automation","display_name":"Automation","score":0.4724999964237213},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.44209998846054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/grid","display_name":"Grid","score":0.4032000005245209},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encoder","display_name":"Encoder","score":0.35089999437332153}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.6764000058174133},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.6550999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177606310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5674297","display_name":"Adaptability","level":2,"score":0.5927000045776367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5925999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779585090","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3457762","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","level":2,"score":0.5738999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10558101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q689855","display_name":"Smart grid","level":2,"score":0.48969998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115901376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184199","display_name":"Automation","level":2,"score":0.4724999964237213},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.44209998846054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187691185","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2020720","display_name":"Grid","level":2,"score":0.4032000005245209},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.398499995470047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.3601999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118505674","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42586063","display_name":"Encoder","level":2,"score":0.35089999437332153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148417208","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4825882","display_name":"Authentication (law)","level":2,"score":0.3431999981403351},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780378061","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25351891","display_name":"Service (business)","level":2,"score":0.3253999948501587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119701452","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165881","display_name":"Control reconfiguration","level":2,"score":0.32199999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81669768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2359161","display_name":"Precision and recall","level":2,"score":0.31450000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.30790001153945923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.2955000102519989},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.27950000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775977338","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2302880","display_name":"Unexploded ordnance","level":2,"score":0.2775999903678894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.27320000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186370098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442787","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.26809999346733093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.2662000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201307755","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4071928","display_name":"Cyber-attack","level":2,"score":0.26260000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158251709","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q354025","display_name":"Intrusion","level":2,"score":0.2614000141620636},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136085584","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q910289","display_name":"Overlay","level":2,"score":0.25040000677108765}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:385aad1111224299886c53679873d081","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/385aad1111224299886c53679873d081","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science, Vol 12, p e3506 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3506","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210178049","display_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","issn_l":"2376-5992","issn":["2376-5992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320104","host_organization_name":"PeerJ, Inc.","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320104"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["PeerJ, Inc."],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"PeerJ Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.6427584886550903}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":37,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2793610021","https://openalex.org/W2969413139","https://openalex.org/W2993017767","https://openalex.org/W3011679662","https://openalex.org/W3088843384","https://openalex.org/W3108634995","https://openalex.org/W3112937181","https://openalex.org/W3164321464","https://openalex.org/W3170622364","https://openalex.org/W3178719887","https://openalex.org/W3180202571","https://openalex.org/W4206309573","https://openalex.org/W4206382210","https://openalex.org/W4285091698","https://openalex.org/W4285264461","https://openalex.org/W4288967728","https://openalex.org/W4308719652","https://openalex.org/W4310453917","https://openalex.org/W4311415873","https://openalex.org/W4321377727","https://openalex.org/W4361278397","https://openalex.org/W4362698768","https://openalex.org/W4367280922","https://openalex.org/W4378976213","https://openalex.org/W4381550190","https://openalex.org/W4385347109","https://openalex.org/W4387675520","https://openalex.org/W4391812155","https://openalex.org/W4392405498","https://openalex.org/W4396909979","https://openalex.org/W4398193608","https://openalex.org/W4400266772","https://openalex.org/W4403360421","https://openalex.org/W4406354473","https://openalex.org/W4409284677","https://openalex.org/W4409885317","https://openalex.org/W4410580511"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"widespread":[1],"adoption":[2],"of":[3,113,117,121,126,142],"electric":[4],"vehicles":[5],"(EVs)":[6],"is":[7],"crucial":[8],"for":[9,81,155],"reducing":[10],"greenhouse":[11],"gas":[12],"emissions,":[13],"yet":[14],"it":[15],"exposes":[16],"charging":[17,28,144],"infrastructure":[18],"to":[19,149],"sophisticated":[20],"cyber":[21],"threats.":[22],"In":[23],"the":[24,96,99,139],"next":[25],"generation":[26],"EV":[27,143],"networks,":[29],"ultra-low":[30],"latency,":[31],"massive":[32],"device":[33],"connectivity,":[34],"and":[35,51,62,84,107,123,152,157],"AI-driven":[36,130],"automation":[37],"are":[38],"key":[39],"technologies.":[40],"Traditional":[41],"intrusion":[42],"detection":[43,132],"systems":[44],"(IDS)":[45],"struggle":[46],"with":[47],"class":[48],"imbalance,":[49],"overfitting,":[50],"real-time":[52,153],"anomaly":[53,131],"detection.":[54],"These":[55],"limitations":[56],"threaten":[57],"user":[58],"privacy,":[59],"service":[60],"continuity,":[61],"grid":[63],"stability.":[64],"This":[65],"study":[66],"proposes":[67],"a":[68,75,115,119],"Variational":[69],"Auto":[70],"Encoder":[71],"(VAE)":[72],"based":[73],"XGBoost,":[74],"hybrid":[76],"IDS":[77],"that":[78],"leverages":[79],"VAE":[80],"feature":[82],"extraction":[83],"handling":[85],"imbalanced":[86],"attack":[87],"data,":[88],"while":[89],"XGBoost":[90],"improves":[91],"classification":[92],"accuracy.":[93],"Evaluated":[94],"on":[95],"CICEVSE2024":[97],"dataset,":[98],"model":[100],"surpasses":[101],"traditional":[102],"methods":[103],"like":[104],"K-Nearest":[105],"Neighbors":[106],"Random":[108],"Forest,":[109],"achieving":[110],"an":[111,124],"accuracy":[112],"88.75%,":[114,122],"precision":[116],"88.73%,":[118],"recall":[120],"F1-score":[125],"88.67%.":[127],"By":[128],"integrating":[129],"into":[133],"6G-enabled":[134],"smart":[135],"grids,":[136],"VAE-XGBoost":[137],"enhances":[138],"cybersecurity":[140],"resilience":[141],"infrastructure,":[145],"ensuring":[146],"scalability,":[147],"adaptability":[148],"novel":[150],"threats,":[151],"mitigation":[154],"sustainable":[156],"secure":[158],"transportation":[159],"networks.":[160]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-08-12T21:12:35.861297","created_date":"2026-02-04T00:00:00"}
