{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414869211","doi":"https://doi.org/10.62056/akgyl8n4e","title":"Blind zkSNARKs","display_name":"Blind zkSNARKs","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414869211","doi":"https://doi.org/10.62056/akgyl8n4e"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.62056/akgyl8n4e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.62056/akgyl8n4e","pdf_url":"https://cic.iacr.org/p/2/3/10/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4394708374","display_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","issn_l":"3006-5496","issn":["3006-5496"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320989","host_organization_name":"International Association for Cryptologic Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320989"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["International Association for Cryptologic Research"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://cic.iacr.org/p/2/3/10/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048118512","display_name":"Mariana Gama","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2759-043X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","display_name":"KU Leuven","ror":"https://ror.org/05f950310","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mariana Gama","raw_affiliation_strings":["COSIC, KU Leuven"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2759-043X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"COSIC, KU Leuven","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008723906","display_name":"Emad Heydari Beni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3352-6968"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","display_name":"KU Leuven","ror":"https://ror.org/05f950310","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emad Beni","raw_affiliation_strings":["COSIC, KU Leuven","Nokia Bell Labs"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3352-6968","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"COSIC, KU Leuven","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Nokia Bell Labs","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045098077","display_name":"Jiayi Kang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1093-7978"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","display_name":"KU Leuven","ror":"https://ror.org/05f950310","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiayi Kang","raw_affiliation_strings":["COSIC, KU Leuven"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1093-7978","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"COSIC, KU Leuven","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5095063960","display_name":"Jannik Spiessens","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4738-5758"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","display_name":"KU Leuven","ror":"https://ror.org/05f950310","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jannik Spiessens","raw_affiliation_strings":["COSIC, KU Leuven"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4738-5758","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"COSIC, KU Leuven","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032574536","display_name":"Fr\u00e9derik Vercauteren","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7208-9599"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","display_name":"KU Leuven","ror":"https://ror.org/05f950310","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Frederik Vercauteren","raw_affiliation_strings":["COSIC, KU Leuven"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7208-9599","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"COSIC, KU Leuven","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":4.9524,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95299791,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"2","issue":"3","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.7494000196456909},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematical-proof","display_name":"Mathematical proof","score":0.7455999851226807},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/delegate","display_name":"Delegate","score":0.5893999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.5820000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/verifiable-secret-sharing","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","score":0.551800012588501},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lemma","display_name":"Lemma (botany)","score":0.4887999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computation","display_name":"Computation","score":0.4332999885082245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/secure-multi-party-computation","display_name":"Secure multi-party computation","score":0.3824000060558319},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptosystem","display_name":"Cryptosystem","score":0.38190001249313354}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.7494000196456909},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108710211","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11538","display_name":"Mathematical proof","level":2,"score":0.7455999851226807},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6534000039100647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C143273055","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2382794","display_name":"Delegate","level":2,"score":0.5893999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.5820000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85847156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59015987","display_name":"Verifiable secret sharing","level":3,"score":0.551800012588501},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.5109000205993652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777759810","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q149316","display_name":"Lemma (botany)","level":3,"score":0.4887999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.4332999885082245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18396474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2465888","display_name":"Secure multi-party computation","level":3,"score":0.3824000060558319},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6295992","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q976521","display_name":"Cryptosystem","level":3,"score":0.38190001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132161212","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891458","display_name":"Homomorphic secret sharing","level":4,"score":0.376800000667572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.3714999854564667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3370000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.32690000534057617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203265346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11387554","display_name":"Proof assistant","level":3,"score":0.32690000534057617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159718280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5526353","display_name":"Gas meter prover","level":3,"score":0.32510000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15569618","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3561421","display_name":"Liveness","level":2,"score":0.3093000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124978682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1201019","display_name":"Proof of concept","level":2,"score":0.3070000112056732},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203062551","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201339","display_name":"Public-key cryptography","level":3,"score":0.3003999888896942},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15927051","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q246593","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","level":4,"score":0.28929999470710754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17566778","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q467602","display_name":"Proofs of Fermat's little theorem","level":5,"score":0.28679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181149355","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q897511","display_name":"Cryptanalysis","level":3,"score":0.2799000144004822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123436394","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7249984","display_name":"Proof-of-work system","level":3,"score":0.2786000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C311688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2393193","display_name":"Time complexity","level":2,"score":0.2777000069618225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776711565","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7445058","display_name":"Security parameter","level":3,"score":0.2667999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206880738","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q431667","display_name":"Automated theorem proving","level":2,"score":0.26179999113082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33884865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254335","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","level":3,"score":0.2529999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2318724","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852732","display_name":"Proof theory","level":3,"score":0.2502000033855438}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.62056/akgyl8n4e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.62056/akgyl8n4e","pdf_url":"https://cic.iacr.org/p/2/3/10/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4394708374","display_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","issn_l":"3006-5496","issn":["3006-5496"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320989","host_organization_name":"International Association for Cryptologic Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320989"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["International Association for Cryptologic Research"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:lirias2repo.kuleuven.be:20.500.12942/786678","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/20.500.12942/786678","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401954","display_name":"Lirias (KU Leuven)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I99464096","host_organization_name":"KU Leuven","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99464096"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology (CiC), vol. 2 (3)","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.62056/akgyl8n4e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.62056/akgyl8n4e","pdf_url":"https://cic.iacr.org/p/2/3/10/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4394708374","display_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","issn_l":"3006-5496","issn":["3006-5496"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320989","host_organization_name":"International Association for Cryptologic Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320989"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["International Association for Cryptologic Research"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Communications in Cryptology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414869211.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":75,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W31130112","https://openalex.org/W104209573","https://openalex.org/W121367636","https://openalex.org/W236632755","https://openalex.org/W1557386445","https://openalex.org/W1565128838","https://openalex.org/W1601001795","https://openalex.org/W1862721573","https://openalex.org/W1890128745","https://openalex.org/W1985439922","https://openalex.org/W1992282993","https://openalex.org/W2015667369","https://openalex.org/W2021281804","https://openalex.org/W2043007983","https://openalex.org/W2098290658","https://openalex.org/W2100460660","https://openalex.org/W2142048307","https://openalex.org/W2152926062","https://openalex.org/W2226167778","https://openalex.org/W2397066487","https://openalex.org/W2400700555","https://openalex.org/W2401959250","https://openalex.org/W2402235285","https://openalex.org/W2536319456","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2794425121","https://openalex.org/W2794927157","https://openalex.org/W2866028610","https://openalex.org/W2883563728","https://openalex.org/W2885314357","https://openalex.org/W2886714247","https://openalex.org/W2887786293","https://openalex.org/W2898776076","https://openalex.org/W2942255051","https://openalex.org/W2947254643","https://openalex.org/W2952604022","https://openalex.org/W2952852190","https://openalex.org/W2990842822","https://openalex.org/W2991016858","https://openalex.org/W3023964980","https://openalex.org/W3028867652","https://openalex.org/W3030708022","https://openalex.org/W3094696138","https://openalex.org/W3157709467","https://openalex.org/W3164004061","https://openalex.org/W3173798724","https://openalex.org/W3176410512","https://openalex.org/W3204983216","https://openalex.org/W3211614912","https://openalex.org/W3216213893","https://openalex.org/W4231090573","https://openalex.org/W4251546625","https://openalex.org/W4312463145","https://openalex.org/W4312478351","https://openalex.org/W4385080297","https://openalex.org/W4385654101","https://openalex.org/W4388857288","https://openalex.org/W4388858844","https://openalex.org/W4388925770","https://openalex.org/W4389844109","https://openalex.org/W4389897546","https://openalex.org/W4394595246","https://openalex.org/W4394907743","https://openalex.org/W4401598503","https://openalex.org/W4401599188","https://openalex.org/W4402355119","https://openalex.org/W4404515307","https://openalex.org/W4404901221","https://openalex.org/W4405166865","https://openalex.org/W4405181226","https://openalex.org/W4405181463","https://openalex.org/W4408162508","https://openalex.org/W4409851980","https://openalex.org/W4411157063","https://openalex.org/W6947788234"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"this":[1,33],"paper,":[2],"we":[3,44,104,180,230],"show":[4,60],"for":[5,23,133,157,167,199,202,219],"the":[6,50,62,76,86,97,144,158,182,216,232],"first":[7],"time":[8,111,121,241],"it":[9,175],"is":[10],"practical":[11,131],"to":[12,19,27,107,115,124],"privately":[13],"delegate":[14],"proof":[15,37,102,204,220,243],"generation":[16,38,205],"of":[17,25,52,140,191,226],"zkSNARKs":[18,65],"a":[20,130,164,188,196],"single":[21],"server":[22,119],"computations":[24],"up":[26],"2^20":[28],"R1CS":[29],"constraints.":[30],"We":[31,48,127,194],"achieve":[32],"by":[34,79,89,154,173,186],"computing":[35,174],"zkSNARK":[36],"over":[39],"homomorphic":[40,160,169],"ciphertexts,":[41],"an":[42],"approach":[43],"call":[45],"blind":[46,53,64],"zkSNARKs.":[47],"formalize":[49],"concept":[51],"proofs,":[54],"analyze":[55],"their":[56],"cryptographic":[57],"properties":[58],"and":[59,84,209,214,237,242],"that":[61],"resulting":[63],"remain":[66],"sound":[67],"when":[68],"compiled":[69],"using":[70,215],"BCS":[71],"compilation.":[72],"Our":[73],"work":[74],"follows":[75],"framework":[77],"proposed":[78],"Garg":[80],"et":[81,91],"al.":[82,92],"(Crypto'24)":[83],"improves":[85],"instantiation":[87],"presented":[88],"Aranha":[90],"(Asiacrypt'24),":[93],"which":[94],"implements":[95],"only":[96],"FRI":[98],"subprotocol.":[99],"By":[100],"delegating":[101],"generation,":[103],"are":[105,152],"able":[106],"reduce":[108],"client":[109],"computation":[110,120],"from":[112],"10":[113],"minutes":[114],"mere":[116],"seconds,":[117],"while":[118],"remains":[122],"limited":[123],"20":[125],"minutes.":[126],"also":[128],"propose":[129,195],"construction":[132,198],"vCOED":[134],"supporting":[135],"constraint":[136],"sizes":[137],"four":[138],"orders":[139],"magnitude":[141],"larger":[142],"than":[143],"current":[145],"state-of-the-art":[146],"verifiable":[147,185],"FHE-based":[148],"approaches.":[149],"These":[150],"results":[151],"achieved":[153],"optimizing":[155],"Fractal":[156],"GBFV":[159,213],"encryption":[161],"scheme,":[162],"including":[163],"novel":[165],"method":[166],"making":[168],"NTT":[170],"evaluation":[171],"packing-friendly":[172],"in":[176,212,235],"two":[177],"dimensions.":[178],"Furthermore,":[179],"make":[181],"proofs":[183],"publicly":[184],"appending":[187],"zero-knowledge":[189],"Proof":[190],"Decryption":[192],"(PoD).":[193],"new":[197],"PoDs":[200],"optimized":[201],"low":[203],"time,":[206],"exploiting":[207],"modulus":[208],"ring":[210],"switching":[211],"Schwartz-Zippel":[217],"lemma":[218],"batching;":[221],"these":[222],"techniques":[223],"might":[224],"be":[225],"independent":[227],"interest.":[228],"Finally,":[229],"implement":[231],"latter":[233],"protocol":[234],"C":[236],"report":[238],"on":[239],"execution":[240],"sizes.":[244]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-06-26T08:34:08.712188","created_date":"2025-10-07T00:00:00"}