{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7166705323","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","title":"Majority Vote Silences Minority Values: Annotator Disagreement at the Hate/Offensive Boundary in HateXplain","display_name":"Majority Vote Silences Minority Values: Annotator Disagreement at the Hate/Offensive Boundary in HateXplain","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-06-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7166705323","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007033466","display_name":"Joshua Muhumuza","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5121-264X"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhumuza, Joshua","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139708266","display_name":"Joab Ezra Agaba","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Agaba, Joab Ezra","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109241379","display_name":"Mercy Amiyo","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Amiyo, Mercy","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.910099983215332,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.910099983215332,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10664","display_name":"Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining","score":0.013199999928474426,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":0.009399999864399433,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sophistication","display_name":"Sophistication","score":0.6782000064849854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/boundary","display_name":"Boundary (topology)","score":0.646399974822998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/annotation","display_name":"Annotation","score":0.42179998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/offensive","display_name":"Offensive","score":0.4088999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/meaning","display_name":"Meaning (existential)","score":0.3880999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychological-intervention","display_name":"Psychological intervention","score":0.3343000113964081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/upstream","display_name":"Upstream (networking)","score":0.3222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/nist","display_name":"NIST","score":0.30550000071525574}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168725872","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q991663","display_name":"Sophistication","level":2,"score":0.6782000064849854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62354387","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875399","display_name":"Boundary (topology)","level":2,"score":0.646399974822998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.48030000925064087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776321320","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857525","display_name":"Annotation","level":2,"score":0.42179998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176856949","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2001676","display_name":"Offensive","level":2,"score":0.4088999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780876879","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3054749","display_name":"Meaning (existential)","level":2,"score":0.3880999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.3431999981403351},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3400999903678894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27415008","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7256382","display_name":"Psychological intervention","level":2,"score":0.3343000113964081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3257000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191172861","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7899321","display_name":"Upstream (networking)","level":2,"score":0.3222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.31029999256134033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111219384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6954384","display_name":"NIST","level":2,"score":0.30550000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.2962000072002411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778223634","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q224952","display_name":"Suspect","level":2,"score":0.29510000348091125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.2946999967098236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55439883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q360812","display_name":"Correctness","level":2,"score":0.2858999967575073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.28360000252723694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776207758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5303302","display_name":"Downstream (manufacturing)","level":2,"score":0.28220000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780665704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959298","display_name":"Intervention (counseling)","level":2,"score":0.2782000005245209},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12713177","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1900281","display_name":"Perspective (graphical)","level":2,"score":0.27639999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776889015","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5282532","display_name":"Disparate impact","level":3,"score":0.27410000562667847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153668964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27636","display_name":"Majority rule","level":2,"score":0.25}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2606.28772","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.598242998123169}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Hate":[0],"speech":[1],"annotation":[2,176],"pipelines":[3],"routinely":[4],"collapse":[5],"annotator":[6,25],"disagreement":[7,26,80,104],"into":[8],"majority":[9],"vote":[10,156],"labels":[11],"before":[12],"training.":[13],"We":[14,149],"show":[15],"that":[16,167],"this":[17,95],"aggregation":[18],"is":[19,153],"not":[20,133],"neutral:":[21],"42.6%":[22],"of":[23,140],"all":[24,143],"in":[27,73,175],"HateXplain":[28],"concentrates":[29],"specifically":[30],"at":[31,84],"the":[32,135,151],"hate/offensive":[33],"boundary,":[34],"a":[35,57,64,158],"pattern":[36],"consistent":[37],"with":[38],"annotators":[39],"applying":[40],"different":[41],"thresholds":[42],"for":[43],"where":[44],"hate":[45],"begins":[46],"(chi-squared":[47],"=":[48,51],"135.199,":[49],"df":[50],"2,":[52],"p":[53,85,125],"&lt;":[54,86,126],"0.0001).":[55],"Both":[56],"hard-label":[58],"BERT":[59],"model":[60,66,91],"(Model":[61,67,92],"A)":[62],"and":[63,164],"soft-label":[65],"B)":[68],"drop":[69],"22":[70],"percentage":[71],"points":[72,100],"accuracy":[74,105],"from":[75],"agreed":[76],"posts":[77,81],"(~80%)":[78],"to":[79,98,106,145],"(~58%),":[82],"confirmed":[83],"0.0001.":[87],"A":[88,110],"per-annotator":[89],"multi-head":[90],"C)":[93],"widens":[94],"gap":[96],"further":[97],"28":[99],"while":[101],"collapsing":[102],"offensive":[103],"0.245.":[107],"Critically,":[108],"Model":[109,120],"expresses":[111],"significantly":[112],"higher":[113],"confidence":[114],"on":[115],"boundary":[116,147],"case":[117],"errors":[118],"than":[119],"C":[121],"(0.710":[122],"vs.":[123],"0.495,":[124],"0.0001),":[127],"meaning":[128],"standard":[129],"evaluation":[130],"metrics":[131],"will":[132],"detect":[134],"failure.":[136],"Three":[137],"downstream":[138],"interventions":[139],"increasing":[141],"sophistication":[142],"fail":[144],"recover":[146],"accuracy.":[148],"argue":[150],"problem":[152],"structural.":[154],"Majority":[155],"presents":[157],"contested":[159],"judgment":[160],"as":[161],"ground":[162],"truth,":[163],"models":[165],"inherit":[166],"false":[168],"certainty.":[169],"The":[170],"intervention":[171],"must":[172],"be":[173],"upstream":[174],"design.":[177]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-28T07:46:37.118299","created_date":"2026-07-01T00:00:00"}
