{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7160998086","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","title":"Revisiting Privacy Preservation in Brain-Computer Interfaces: Conceptual Boundaries, Risk Pathways, and a Protection-Strength Grading Framework","display_name":"Revisiting Privacy Preservation in Brain-Computer Interfaces: Conceptual Boundaries, Risk Pathways, and a Protection-Strength Grading Framework","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-05-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7160998086","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5136009867","display_name":"Lei Sun","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sun, Lei","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049423121","display_name":"Xiuqing Mao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7305-8831"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mao, Xiuqing","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5136036485","display_name":"Shuai Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhang, Shuai","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5136070204","display_name":"Qingyu Zeng","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zeng, Qingyu","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5136008532","display_name":"Min Zhao","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhao, Min","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5136063240","display_name":"Jiyuan Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Li, Jiyuan","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114138965","display_name":"Wenle Dong","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dong, Wenle","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10429","display_name":"EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces","score":0.5455999970436096,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10429","display_name":"EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces","score":0.5455999970436096,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10241","display_name":"Functional Brain Connectivity Studies","score":0.052299998700618744,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11519","display_name":"Digital Mental Health Interventions","score":0.025200000032782555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3202","display_name":"Applied Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-privacy","display_name":"Information privacy","score":0.5289999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-protection-act-1998","display_name":"Data Protection Act 1998","score":0.4544000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-software","display_name":"Privacy software","score":0.4404999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/privacy-protection","display_name":"Privacy protection","score":0.4262000024318695},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/raw-data","display_name":"Raw data","score":0.42179998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/conceptual-model","display_name":"Conceptual model","score":0.392300009727478},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/personally-identifiable-information","display_name":"Personally identifiable information","score":0.3919000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-sensitivity","display_name":"Information sensitivity","score":0.39149999618530273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.3747999966144562}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7258999943733215},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.5289999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.4609000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C69360830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172237","display_name":"Data Protection Act 1998","level":2,"score":0.4544000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C509729295","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7246032","display_name":"Privacy software","level":3,"score":0.4404999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3017597292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25052250","display_name":"Privacy protection","level":2,"score":0.4262000024318695},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132964779","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2110223","display_name":"Raw data","level":2,"score":0.42179998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108827166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175975","display_name":"Internet privacy","level":1,"score":0.4074999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13606891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2623243","display_name":"Conceptual model","level":2,"score":0.392300009727478},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169093310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3702971","display_name":"Personally identifiable information","level":2,"score":0.3919000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137822555","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2587068","display_name":"Information sensitivity","level":2,"score":0.39149999618530273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.3747999966144562},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.3718000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12174686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1058438","display_name":"Risk assessment","level":2,"score":0.34439998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.3434000015258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3090818","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172506","display_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","level":3,"score":0.3285999894142151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140547941","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7797194","display_name":"Threat model","level":2,"score":0.32600000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193934123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7246028","display_name":"Privacy by Design","level":3,"score":0.31049999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777622855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7901844","display_name":"User information","level":3,"score":0.28450000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.2840000092983246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.2818000018596649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.2809000015258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.27900001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32896092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189447","display_name":"Risk management","level":2,"score":0.27559998631477356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180198813","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121182","display_name":"Information system","level":2,"score":0.2721000015735626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14224292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13600188","display_name":"Conceptual framework","level":2,"score":0.2711000144481659},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777286243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5591926","display_name":"Grading (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.266400009393692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94124525","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912550","display_name":"Categorization","level":2,"score":0.26589998602867126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2529999911785126}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.11386","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Brain-computer":[0,163],"interfaces":[1],"(BCIs)":[2],"are":[3,137],"moving":[4],"rapidly":[5],"from":[6,78],"laboratory":[7],"research":[8],"into":[9,125],"clinical,":[10],"edge,":[11],"and":[12,30,51,65,90,97,116,134],"real-world":[13],"settings.":[14],"Under":[15],"ISO/IEC":[16],"8663:2025,":[17],"a":[18,21,74,101,108],"BCI":[19,81,144],"is":[20],"direct":[22],"communication":[23],"link":[24,37],"between":[25,93],"central":[26],"nervous":[27],"system":[28],"activity":[29],"external":[31],"software":[32],"or":[33,67],"hardware":[34],"systems.":[35],"This":[36],"expands":[38],"privacy":[39,96,99,133,145],"risk":[40,103],"beyond":[41,72],"raw":[42],"neural-signal":[43],"leakage:":[44],"neural":[45],"data,":[46],"derived":[47],"representations,":[48],"model":[49,98],"assets,":[50],"decoded":[52],"outputs":[53],"can":[54],"be":[55],"re-associated":[56],"with":[57],"individuals":[58],"across":[59],"collection,":[60],"transmission,":[61],"storage,":[62],"training,":[63],"inference,":[64],"feedback,":[66],"used":[68],"to":[69,121],"infer":[70],"information":[71,157],"what":[73],"task":[75],"requires.":[76],"Starting":[77],"the":[79,91],"general":[80],"paradigm,":[82],"this":[83],"review":[84],"deffnes":[85],"privacy-protection":[86],"boundaries,":[87],"protection":[88,112,129,146],"objects,":[89],"relationship":[92],"user":[94],"data":[95,151,166,169],"within":[100],"shared":[102],"pathway.":[104],"It":[105],"then":[106],"proposes":[107],"three-dimensional":[109],"framework":[110],"-":[111,120],"object,":[113],"lifecycle":[114],"stage,":[115],"dominant":[117],"protection-strength":[118],"level":[119],"classify":[122],"existing":[123],"work":[124],"four":[126],"levels":[127],"of":[128,174],"strength.":[130],"Finally,":[131],"mental":[132],"neuroethical":[135],"risks":[136,181],"treated":[138],"as":[139],"open":[140],"issues,":[141],"emphasizing":[142],"that":[143],"should":[147],"not":[148],"only":[149],"obscure":[150],"but":[152],"also":[153],"disentangle":[154],"task-irrelevant":[155,175],"sensitive":[156,176],"while":[158],"preserving":[159],"downstream":[160],"utility.":[161],"Keywords:":[162],"interface,":[164],"Neural":[165],"privacy,":[167,170,172],"User":[168],"Model":[171],"Disentanglement":[173],"information,":[177],"Protection-strength":[178],"grading,":[179],"Neuroethical":[180]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-01T06:00:48.157686","created_date":"2026-05-14T00:00:00"}
