{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7160631770","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","title":"Counterargument for Critical Thinking as Judged by AI and Humans","display_name":"Counterargument for Critical Thinking as Judged by AI and Humans","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-05-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7160631770","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135688133","display_name":"Tosin Adewumi","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Adewumi, Tosin","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135682264","display_name":"Marcus Liwicki","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Liwicki, Marcus","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078332729","display_name":"Foteini Liwicki","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6756-0147"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Liwicki, Foteini Simistira","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135673896","display_name":"Lama Alkhaled","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alkhaled, Lama","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085139485","display_name":"Hamam Mokayed","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6158-3543"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mokayed, Hamam","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5118945565","display_name":"Esra S\u00fcmer-Arpak","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"S\u00fcmer-Arpak, Esra","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11715","display_name":"Education and Critical Thinking Development","score":0.1746000051498413,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11715","display_name":"Education and Critical Thinking Development","score":0.1746000051498413,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12887","display_name":"Educational Strategies and Epistemologies","score":0.16820000112056732,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.12129999697208405,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rubric","display_name":"Rubric","score":0.8817999958992004},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/critical-thinking","display_name":"Critical thinking","score":0.6453999876976013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.589900016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cheating","display_name":"Cheating","score":0.5835000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.5314000248908997},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/likert-scale","display_name":"Likert scale","score":0.5020999908447266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.47029998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.4180000126361847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/writing-assessment","display_name":"Writing assessment","score":0.40790000557899475}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111640148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q847349","display_name":"Rubric","level":2,"score":0.8817999958992004},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C533356498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q843894","display_name":"Critical thinking","level":2,"score":0.6453999876976013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.589900016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778024590","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2357432","display_name":"Cheating","level":2,"score":0.5835000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.5314000248908997},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.5285000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105776082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q617473","display_name":"Likert scale","level":2,"score":0.5020999908447266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.47029998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.4180000126361847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777898490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17157236","display_name":"Writing assessment","level":2,"score":0.40790000557899475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55439883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q360812","display_name":"Correctness","level":2,"score":0.40610000491142273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168167062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117970","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.38100001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3684999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780791683","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846785","display_name":"Action (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3564000129699707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781035248","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186150","display_name":"Fallacy","level":2,"score":0.35440000891685486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.34470000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.3359000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3328999876976013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.3273000121116638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79585631","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q431498","display_name":"Confirmation bias","level":2,"score":0.3228999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187029079","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q958679","display_name":"Cognitive reframing","level":2,"score":0.32100000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.31040000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.30230000615119934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780665704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959298","display_name":"Intervention (counseling)","level":2,"score":0.29989999532699585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190248442","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q839486","display_name":"Qualitative research","level":2,"score":0.29809999465942383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.2881999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8795937","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11862829","display_name":"Discipline","level":2,"score":0.2849000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.28189998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.27639999985694885}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2605.05353","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.592172384262085}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,22],"intervention":[1],"study":[2],"investigates":[3],"the":[4,16,34,98,111,119,144,202],"use":[5,35],"of":[6,18,27,36,56,63,102,161,198],"counterarguments":[7,147],"in":[8,15,42],"writing":[9],"for":[10,96,108,200],"critical":[11,162],"thinking":[12],"by":[13],"students":[14,41],"context":[17],"Generative":[19],"AI":[20],"(GenAI).":[21],"is":[23,157],"especially":[24],"as":[25,125,190],"risks":[26],"cheating":[28],"and":[29,75,85,114,136,164,182],"cognitive":[30],"offloading":[31],"exist":[32],"with":[33,47,187,192],"GenAI.":[37],"We":[38,65],"presented":[39],"36":[40],"a":[43,54,92,158],"particular":[44],"university":[45],"course":[46],"4":[48],"carefully":[49],"selected":[50],"thesis":[51],"statements":[52],"(from":[53],"set":[55],"popular":[57],"debates)":[58],"to":[59,77,148,173],"write":[60],"about":[61],"anyone":[62],"them.":[64],"used":[66,170],"six":[67,122],"established":[68],"rubrics":[69,113],"(focus,":[70],"logic,":[71,152],"content,":[72],"style,":[73],"correctness":[74],"reference)":[76],"conduct":[78],"three":[79],"human":[80,188],"assessments":[81,184,189],"(two":[82],"student":[83],"peer-reviews":[84],"one":[86,107],"experienced":[87],"teacher)":[88],"per":[89,134],"writeup":[90],"on":[91,179],"5-point":[93],"Likert":[94],"scale":[95,172],"all":[97,201],"qualified":[99],"samples":[100],"(n)":[101],"35":[103],"submissions":[104,120],"(after":[105],"disqualifying":[106],"irregularity).":[109],"Using":[110],"same":[112],"guidelines,":[115],"we":[116],"also":[117],"assessed":[118],"using":[121],"frontier":[123],"LLMs":[124],"judges.":[126],"Our":[127],"mixed-method":[128],"design":[129],"included":[130],"qualitative":[131],"open-ended":[132],"feedback":[133],"assessment":[135],"quantitative":[137],"methods.":[138],"The":[139],"results":[140],"reveal":[141],"that":[142],"(1)":[143],"students'":[145,175],"self-written":[146],"AI-generated":[149],"content":[150],"contains":[151],"among":[153],"other":[154],"things,":[155],"which":[156],"key":[159],"component":[160],"thinking,":[163],"(2)":[165],"GenAI":[166],"can":[167],"be":[168],"successfully":[169],"at":[171],"assess":[174],"written":[176],"work,":[177],"based":[178],"clear":[180],"rubrics,":[181],"these":[183],"generally":[185],"align":[186],"shown":[191],"Gwets":[193],"AC2":[194],"inter-rater":[195],"reliability":[196],"values":[197],"0.33":[199],"models":[203],"except":[204],"one.":[205]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2026-05-09T00:00:00"}
