{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7134846958","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","title":"How Much Noise Can BERT Handle? Insights from Multilingual Sentence Difficulty Detection","display_name":"How Much Noise Can BERT Handle? Insights from Multilingual Sentence Difficulty Detection","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7134846958","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128641038","display_name":"Nouran Khallaf","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Khallaf, Nouran","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128633175","display_name":"Serge Sharoff","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sharoff, Serge","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13629","display_name":"Text Readability and Simplification","score":0.6692000031471252,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13629","display_name":"Text Readability and Simplification","score":0.6692000031471252,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.05079999938607216,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.042100001126527786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise-reduction","display_name":"Noise reduction","score":0.6802999973297119},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sentence","display_name":"Sentence","score":0.590399980545044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise","display_name":"Noise (video)","score":0.5835000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.5794000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.5360999703407288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/training-set","display_name":"Training set","score":0.49410000443458557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise-measurement","display_name":"Noise measurement","score":0.4187000095844269}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7179999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163294075","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q581861","display_name":"Noise reduction","level":2,"score":0.6802999973297119},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777530160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41796","display_name":"Sentence","level":2,"score":0.590399980545044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.5835000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.5794000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5429999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.5360999703407288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.49410000443458557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.43070000410079956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.4255000054836273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29265498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7047719","display_name":"Noise measurement","level":3,"score":0.4187000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.4050999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3725000023841858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781170535","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30587856","display_name":"Noisy data","level":2,"score":0.3695000112056732},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3418999910354614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4199805","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2725903","display_name":"Gaussian noise","level":2,"score":0.3343999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163716315","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901177","display_name":"Gaussian","level":2,"score":0.3328000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.30489999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100675267","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1371624","display_name":"Background noise","level":2,"score":0.2808000147342682}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.07346","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8318079113960266,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Noisy":[0],"training":[1,44],"data":[2,45],"can":[3,111],"significantly":[4],"degrade":[5],"the":[6,26,131,151,190,207],"performance":[7],"of":[8,28,36,154,176,189],"language-model-based":[9],"classifiers,":[10],"particularly":[11,123],"in":[12,70,75,125,193],"non-topical":[13],"classification":[14],"tasks.":[15],"In":[16],"this":[17],"study":[18],"we":[19,32,58,204],"designed":[20],"a":[21,34,64,159,174,195,202],"methodological":[22],"framework":[23],"to":[24,105,136,139,171],"assess":[25],"impact":[27],"denoising.":[29],"More":[30],"specifically,":[31],"explored":[33],"range":[35],"denoising":[37,163,178],"strategies":[38],"for":[39,147,211],"sentence-level":[40],"difficulty":[41,49,213],"detection,":[42],"using":[43],"derived":[46],"from":[47,134],"document-level":[48],"annotations":[50],"obtained":[51],"through":[52],"noisy":[53,185],"crowdsourcing.":[54],"Beyond":[55],"monolingual":[56],"settings,":[57],"also":[59],"address":[60],"cross-lingual":[61],"transfer,":[62],"where":[63],"multilingual":[65,209],"language":[66,72,156],"model":[67],"is":[68],"trained":[69],"one":[71],"and":[73,92],"tested":[74],"another.":[76],"We":[77],"evaluate":[78],"several":[79],"noise":[80,109,120],"reduction":[81],"techniques,":[82],"including":[83],"Gaussian":[84],"Mixture":[85],"Models":[86],"(GMM),":[87],"Co-Teaching,":[88],"Noise":[89],"Transition":[90],"Matrices,":[91],"Label":[93],"Smoothing.":[94],"Our":[95],"results":[96],"indicate":[97],"that":[98],"while":[99,173],"BERT-based":[100],"models":[101,157],"exhibit":[102],"inherent":[103],"robustness":[104],"noise,":[106],"incorporating":[107],"explicit":[108],"detection":[110],"further":[112],"enhance":[113],"performance.":[114],"For":[115],"our":[116,148],"smaller":[117],"dataset,":[118,150],"GMM-based":[119],"filtering":[121],"proves":[122],"effective":[124],"improving":[126],"prediction":[127],"quality":[128],"by":[129],"raising":[130],"Area-Under-the-Curve":[132],"score":[133],"0.52":[135],"0.92,":[137],"or":[138],"0.93":[140],"when":[141],"de-noising":[142],"methods":[143,164,179],"are":[144],"combined.":[145],"However,":[146],"larger":[149],"intrinsic":[152],"regularisation":[153],"pre-trained":[155],"provides":[158],"strong":[160],"baseline,":[161],"with":[162,198],"yielding":[165],"only":[166],"marginal":[167],"gains":[168],"(from":[169],"0.92":[170],"0.94,":[172],"combination":[175],"two":[177],"made":[180],"no":[181],"contribution).":[182],"Nonetheless,":[183],"removing":[184],"sentences":[186],"(about":[187],"20\\%":[188],"dataset)":[191],"helps":[192],"producing":[194],"cleaner":[196],"corpus":[197,210],"fewer":[199],"infelicities.":[200],"As":[201],"result":[203],"have":[205],"released":[206],"largest":[208],"sentence":[212],"prediction:":[214],"see":[215],"https://github.com/Nouran-Khallaf/denoising-difficulty":[216]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2026-03-11T00:00:00"}