{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7128471277","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","title":"Robustness Is a Function, Not a Number: A Factorized Comprehensive Study of OOD Robustness in Vision-Based Driving","display_name":"Robustness Is a Function, Not a Number: A Factorized Comprehensive Study of OOD Robustness in Vision-Based Driving","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7128471277","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123243100","display_name":"Amir Mallak","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mallak, Amir","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060064468","display_name":"Alaa Maalouf","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3800-9460"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maalouf, Alaa","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.12445106,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.532800018787384,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.532800018787384,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.07890000194311142,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10525","display_name":"Human-Automation Interaction and Safety","score":0.05779999867081642,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.8450000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scaling","display_name":"Scaling","score":0.46810001134872437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control-theory","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","score":0.34630000591278076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latency","display_name":"Latency (audio)","score":0.32120001316070557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/running-time","display_name":"Running time","score":0.2782999873161316}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.8450000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6238999962806702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99844830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102441924","display_name":"Scaling","level":2,"score":0.46810001134872437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.4560999870300293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47446073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165890","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","level":3,"score":0.34630000591278076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82876162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17096504","display_name":"Latency (audio)","level":2,"score":0.32120001316070557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.3109000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3017489831","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2393193","display_name":"Running time","level":2,"score":0.2782999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.25049999356269836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17500928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959968","display_name":"Control system","level":2,"score":0.2402999997138977}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.09018","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities","score":0.7902565598487854,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Out":[0],"of":[1],"distribution":[2],"(OOD)":[3],"robustness":[4,217],"in":[5,49,71,261],"autonomous":[6],"driving":[7,273],"is":[8,197],"often":[9],"reduced":[10],"to":[11,200,222,228],"a":[12,18,95,142,165,204,252,262],"single":[13,113],"number,":[14],"hiding":[15],"what":[16],"breaks":[17],"policy.":[19],"We":[20],"decompose":[21],"environments":[22,239],"along":[23],"five":[24],"axes:":[25],"scene":[26],"(rural/urban),":[27],"season,":[28],"weather,":[29],"time":[30,143],"(day/night),":[31],"and":[32,35,55,67,74,88,120,140,169,242],"agent":[33],"mix;":[34],"measure":[36],"performance":[37,259],"under":[38,157],"controlled":[39],"$k$-factor":[40],"perturbations":[41],"($k":[42],"\\in":[43],"\\{0,1,2,3\\}$).":[44],"Using":[45,236],"closed":[46],"loop":[47],"control":[48],"VISTA,":[50],"we":[51],"benchmark":[52],"FC,":[53],"CNN,":[54],"ViT":[56,60,78],"policies,":[57],"train":[58],"compact":[59],"heads":[61],"on":[62,195],"frozen":[63],"foundation-model":[64],"(FM)":[65],"features,":[66],"vary":[68],"ID":[69,238,254],"support":[70],"scale,":[72],"diversity,":[73],"temporal":[75,100],"context.":[76],"(1)":[77],"policies":[79,153,163],"are":[80,116,181,190],"markedly":[81],"more":[82],"OOD-robust":[83,272],"than":[84],"comparably":[85],"sized":[86],"CNN/FC,":[87],"FM":[89],"features":[90],"yield":[91,267],"state-of-the-art":[92],"success":[93],"at":[94],"latency":[96],"cost.":[97],"(2)":[98],"Naive":[99],"inputs":[101],"(multi-frame)":[102],"do":[103],"not":[104],"beat":[105],"the":[106,208],"best":[107,209],"single-frame":[108,162],"baseline.":[109],"(3)":[110],"The":[111],"largest":[112],"factor":[114],"drops":[115],"rural":[117],"$\\rightarrow$":[118,122],"urban":[119],"day":[121],"night":[123],"($\\sim":[124],"31\\%$":[125],"each);":[126],"actor":[127],"swaps":[128],"$\\sim":[129,133],"10\\%$,":[130],"moderate":[131],"rain":[132],"7\\%$;":[134],"season":[135],"shifts":[136],"can":[137,231],"be":[138],"drastic,":[139],"combining":[141],"flip":[144],"with":[145,251],"other":[146],"changes":[147],"further":[148],"degrades":[149],"performance.":[150,212],"(4)":[151],"FM-feature":[152],"stay":[154],"above":[155],"$85\\%$":[156],"three":[158,177],"simultaneous":[159],"changes;":[160],"non-FM":[161],"take":[164],"large":[166],"first-shift":[167],"hit,":[168],"all":[170],"no-FM":[171],"models":[172],"fall":[173],"below":[174],"$50\\%$":[175],"by":[176],"changes.":[178],"(5)":[179],"Interactions":[180],"non-additive:":[182],"some":[183],"pairings":[184],"partially":[185],"offset,":[186],"whereas":[187],"season-time":[188],"combinations":[189],"especially":[191],"harmful.":[192],"(6)":[193],"Training":[194],"winter/snow":[196],"most":[198],"robust":[199],"single-factor":[201],"shifts,":[202],"while":[203],"rural+summer":[205],"baseline":[206],"gives":[207],"overall":[210],"OOD":[211,247],"(7)":[213],"Scaling":[214],"traces/views":[215],"improves":[216],"($+11.8$":[218],"points":[219],"from":[220],"$5$":[221],"$14$":[223],"traces),":[224],"yet":[225],"targeted":[226],"exposure":[227],"hard":[229],"conditions":[230],"substitute":[232],"for":[233,271],"scale.":[234],"(8)":[235],"multiple":[237],"broadens":[240],"coverage":[241],"strengthens":[243],"weak":[244],"cases":[245],"(urban":[246],"$60.6\\%":[248],"\\rightarrow":[249],"70.1\\%$)":[250],"small":[253],"drop;":[255],"single-ID":[256],"preserves":[257],"peak":[258],"but":[260],"narrow":[263],"domain.":[264],"These":[265],"results":[266],"actionable":[268],"design":[269],"rules":[270],"policies.":[274]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-15T18:14:33.161393","created_date":"2026-02-11T00:00:00"}
