{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127712715","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","title":"Equal Access, Unequal Interaction: A Counterfactual Audit of LLM Fairness","display_name":"Equal Access, Unequal Interaction: A Counterfactual Audit of LLM Fairness","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127712715","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092733824","display_name":"Alireza Amiri-Margavi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9767-7282"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Amiri-Margavi, Alireza","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125098868","display_name":"Arshia Gharagozlou","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gharagozlou, Arshia","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034791306","display_name":"A. G. Davodi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2015-6064"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Davodi, Amin Gholami","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125062662","display_name":"Seyed Pouyan Mousavi Davoudi","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Davoudi, Seyed Pouyan Mousavi","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071426121","display_name":"Hamidreza Hasani Balyani","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Balyani, Hamidreza Hasani","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5092733824"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.6980000138282776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.6980000138282776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11704","display_name":"Mobile Crowdsensing and Crowdsourcing","score":0.04010000079870224,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.023000000044703484,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/counterfactual-thinking","display_name":"Counterfactual thinking","score":0.7936000227928162},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/audit","display_name":"Audit","score":0.5979999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/framing","display_name":"Framing (construction)","score":0.5238999724388123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quality","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","score":0.4869000017642975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identity","display_name":"Identity (music)","score":0.41280001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variation","display_name":"Variation (astronomy)","score":0.39730000495910645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/measure","display_name":"Measure (data warehouse)","score":0.32519999146461487}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108650721","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783253","display_name":"Counterfactual thinking","level":2,"score":0.7936000227928162},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199521495","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181487","display_name":"Audit","level":2,"score":0.5979999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169087156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2131593","display_name":"Framing (construction)","level":2,"score":0.5238999724388123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.4869000017642975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.4555000066757202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4278999865055084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778355321","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17079427","display_name":"Identity (music)","level":2,"score":0.41280001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778334786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1586270","display_name":"Variation (astronomy)","level":2,"score":0.39730000495910645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.3361999988555908},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780009758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804172","display_name":"Measure (data warehouse)","level":2,"score":0.32519999146461487},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196083921","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7915758","display_name":"Variance (accounting)","level":2,"score":0.32010000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136714292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1440683","display_name":"Framing effect","level":3,"score":0.31360000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.3043999969959259},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162118730","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128453","display_name":"Actuarial science","level":1,"score":0.29760000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71889745","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783264","display_name":"Counterfactual conditional","level":3,"score":0.2874999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.2782999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45555294","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28113351","display_name":"Inequality","level":2,"score":0.2660999894142151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781437166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7604391","display_name":"Statistical discrimination","level":2,"score":0.25940001010894775},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992801459","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q223642","display_name":"Interpersonal interaction","level":2,"score":0.257999986410141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140181557","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2288714","display_name":"Quality audit","level":3,"score":0.257099986076355}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:doi:10.48550/arxiv.2602.02932","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"publisher-specific-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/publisher-specific-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/5","display_name":"Gender equality","score":0.6392565369606018}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Prior":[0],"work":[1],"on":[2,12,71],"fairness":[3,42,87,155],"in":[4,48,130],"large":[5],"language":[6],"models":[7,113],"(LLMs)":[8],"has":[9],"primarily":[10],"focused":[11],"access-level":[13],"behaviors":[14],"such":[15],"as":[16],"refusals":[17],"and":[18,51,69,82,91,102],"safety":[19],"filtering.":[20],"However,":[21],"equitable":[22,27],"access":[23,58,86,165],"does":[24],"not":[25],"ensure":[26],"interaction":[28,93,131,161],"quality":[29,94],"once":[30],"a":[31,40,62],"response":[32],"is":[33,59,166],"provided.":[34],"In":[35],"this":[36],"paper,":[37],"we":[38,66,125],"conduct":[39],"controlled":[41],"audit":[43],"examining":[44],"how":[45],"LLMs":[46],"differ":[47],"tone,":[49],"uncertainty,":[50],"linguistic":[52,97],"framing":[53],"across":[54,118,148],"demographic":[55],"identities":[56],"after":[57],"granted.":[60],"Using":[61],"counterfactual":[63],"prompt":[64],"design,":[65],"evaluate":[67],"GPT-4":[68,133],"LLaMA-3.1-70B":[70],"career":[72],"advice":[73],"tasks":[74],"while":[75,142],"varying":[76],"identity":[77,149],"attributes":[78],"along":[79],"age,":[80],"gender,":[81],"nationality.":[83],"We":[84],"assess":[85],"through":[88],"refusal":[89,116],"analysis":[90],"measure":[92],"using":[95,108],"automated":[96],"metrics,":[98],"including":[99],"sentiment,":[100],"politeness,":[101],"hedging.":[103],"Identity-conditioned":[104],"differences":[105],"are":[106],"evaluated":[107],"paired":[109],"statistical":[110],"tests.":[111],"Both":[112],"exhibit":[114],"zero":[115],"rates":[117],"all":[119],"identities,":[120],"indicating":[121],"uniform":[122],"access.":[123],"Nevertheless,":[124],"observe":[126],"systematic,":[127],"model-specific":[128],"disparities":[129,156],"quality:":[132],"expresses":[134],"significantly":[135],"higher":[136],"hedging":[137],"toward":[138],"younger":[139],"male":[140],"users,":[141],"LLaMA":[143],"exhibits":[144],"broader":[145],"sentiment":[146],"variation":[147],"groups.":[150],"These":[151],"results":[152],"show":[153],"that":[154],"can":[157],"persist":[158],"at":[159],"the":[160],"level":[162],"even":[163],"when":[164],"equal,":[167],"motivating":[168],"evaluation":[169],"beyond":[170],"refusal-based":[171],"audits.":[172]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-04T16:13:02.066488","created_date":"2026-02-06T00:00:00"}