{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7119471063","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","title":"Content vs. Form: What Drives the Writing Score Gap Across Socioeconomic Backgrounds? A Generated Panel Approach","display_name":"Content vs. Form: What Drives the Writing Score Gap Across Socioeconomic Backgrounds? A Generated Panel Approach","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7119471063","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122302254","display_name":"Nadav Kunievsky","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kunievsky, Nadav","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122369995","display_name":"Pedro Pertusi","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pertusi, Pedro","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12070","display_name":"Writing and Handwriting Education","score":0.1768999993801117,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12070","display_name":"Writing and Handwriting Education","score":0.1768999993801117,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12887","display_name":"Educational Strategies and Epistemologies","score":0.1054999977350235,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12488","display_name":"Mental Health via Writing","score":0.07429999858140945,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/socioeconomic-status","display_name":"Socioeconomic status","score":0.6801999807357788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variation","display_name":"Variation (astronomy)","score":0.6348000168800354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/salient","display_name":"Salient","score":0.6032999753952026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/conflation","display_name":"Conflation","score":0.5213000178337097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/style","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","score":0.5181999802589417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/content","display_name":"Content (measure theory)","score":0.4325000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/writing-style","display_name":"Writing style","score":0.42500001192092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test","display_name":"Test (biology)","score":0.4156000018119812}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147077947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1515895","display_name":"Socioeconomic status","level":3,"score":0.6801999807357788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778334786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1586270","display_name":"Variation (astronomy)","level":2,"score":0.6348000168800354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780719617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1030752","display_name":"Salient","level":2,"score":0.6032999753952026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C130440534","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14946528","display_name":"Conflation","level":2,"score":0.5213000178337097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776445246","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1792644","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","level":2,"score":0.5181999802589417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4887000024318695},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778152352","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165061","display_name":"Content (measure theory)","level":2,"score":0.4325000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13622073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2243831","display_name":"Writing style","level":2,"score":0.42500001192092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4156000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.3727000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.3686000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.365200012922287},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98184364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1780131","display_name":"Argument (complex analysis)","level":2,"score":0.3628000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196083921","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7915758","display_name":"Variance (accounting)","level":2,"score":0.32429999113082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3231000006198883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203151758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3244907","display_name":"Standardized test","level":2,"score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3138999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28719098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44946","display_name":"Point (geometry)","level":2,"score":0.3109000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.2712000012397766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C135798126","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2167279","display_name":"Top-down and bottom-up design","level":2,"score":0.2703000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778143727","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820650","display_name":"Readability","level":2,"score":0.2687999904155731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162446236","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q653137","display_name":"Content analysis","level":2,"score":0.2655999958515167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112972136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7595718","display_name":"Stability (learning theory)","level":2,"score":0.2558000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780790391","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1149626","display_name":"Written language","level":2,"score":0.25450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.2526000142097473}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2601.03469","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.7239389419555664,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Students":[0],"from":[1,138,188],"different":[2],"socioeconomic":[3],"backgrounds":[4],"exhibit":[5],"persistent":[6],"gaps":[7,11,72,182],"in":[8,22,48,76,81,96,102,173,183,213,227,264],"test":[9],"scores,":[10],"that":[12,41,135,168],"can":[13,39,257],"translate":[14],"into":[15,186],"unequal":[16],"educational":[17],"and":[18,60,126,190,225,245,271],"labor-market":[19],"outcomes":[20],"later":[21],"life.":[23],"In":[24],"many":[25],"assessments,":[26,50],"performance":[27],"reflects":[28],"not":[29],"only":[30],"what":[31,103],"students":[32,104],"know,":[33],"but":[34],"also":[35],"how":[36,89,107,253],"effectively":[37],"they":[38,108],"communicate":[40],"knowledge.":[42],"This":[43,175],"distinction":[44],"is":[45,88,98,209],"especially":[46],"salient":[47],"writing":[49,184,246],"where":[51],"scores":[52,97,185],"jointly":[53],"reward":[54],"the":[55,61,92,156,207,223,235,273],"substance":[56],"of":[57,91,119,150,197,206,222,275],"students'":[58],"ideas":[59,64],"way":[62],"those":[63],"are":[65],"expressed.":[66],"As":[67],"a":[68,116,131,165,201],"result,":[69],"observed":[70],"score":[71],"may":[73],"conflate":[74],"differences":[75,80,101,212,218,226],"underlying":[77,157],"content":[78,137,189,215],"with":[79],"expressive":[82],"skill.":[83],"A":[84],"central":[85],"question,":[86],"therefore,":[87],"much":[90],"socioeconomic-status":[93],"(SES)":[94],"gap":[95,196,208],"driven":[99],"by":[100,123,140],"say":[105,109],"versus":[106],"it.":[110],"We":[111,129,192],"study":[112],"this":[113],"question":[114],"using":[115],"large":[117,142,254],"corpus":[118],"persuasive":[120],"essays":[121],"written":[122],"U.S.":[124],"middle-":[125],"high-school":[127],"students.":[128],"introduce":[130],"new":[132],"measurement":[133],"strategy":[134],"separates":[136],"style":[139],"leveraging":[141],"language":[143,255],"models":[144,256],"to":[145,179,211,260,269],"generate":[146,261],"multiple":[147],"stylistic":[148],"variants":[149],"each":[151],"essay.":[152],"These":[153,238],"rewrites":[154],"preserve":[155],"arguments":[158],"while":[159],"systematically":[160],"altering":[161],"surface":[162],"expression,":[163],"creating":[164],"\"generated":[166],"panel\"":[167],"introduces":[169],"controlled":[170,262],"within-essay":[171],"variation":[172,263],"style.":[174,191],"approach":[176,251],"allows":[177],"us":[178],"decompose":[180],"SES":[181,195,231],"contributions":[187,274],"find":[193],"an":[194],"0.67":[198],"points":[199],"on":[200],"1-6":[202],"scale.":[203],"Approximately":[204],"69%":[205],"attributable":[210],"essay":[214],"quality,":[216],"Style":[217],"account":[219,233],"for":[220,234],"26%":[221],"gap,":[224],"evaluation":[228],"standards":[229],"across":[230,242],"groups":[232],"remaining":[236],"5%.":[237],"patterns":[239],"seems":[240],"stable":[241],"demographic":[243],"subgroups":[244],"tasks.":[247],"More":[248],"broadly,":[249],"our":[250],"shows":[252],"be":[258],"used":[259],"observational":[265],"data,":[266],"enabling":[267],"researchers":[268],"isolate":[270],"quantify":[272],"otherwise":[276],"entangled":[277],"factors.":[278]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-01T06:00:48.157686","created_date":"2026-01-09T00:00:00"}
