{"id":"https://openalex.org/W6929364544","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","title":"Low-Resource NMT: A Case Study on the Written and Spoken Languages in Hong Kong","display_name":"Low-Resource NMT: A Case Study on the Written and Spoken Languages in Hong Kong","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-05-23","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W6929364544","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Mak, Hei Yi","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mak, Hei Yi","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Lee, Tan","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lee, Tan","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":true,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10091","display_name":"Malaria Research and Control","score":0.8234000205993652,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2739","display_name":"Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10091","display_name":"Malaria Research and Control","score":0.8234000205993652,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2739","display_name":"Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11075","display_name":"Insect Resistance and Genetics","score":0.09189999848604202,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1312","display_name":"Molecular Biology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11065","display_name":"Insect Pest Control Strategies","score":0.025200000032782555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mandarin-chinese","display_name":"Mandarin Chinese","score":0.6894999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sentence","display_name":"Sentence","score":0.6148999929428101},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.5443000197410583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-translation","display_name":"Machine translation","score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test","display_name":"Test (biology)","score":0.3912999927997589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/standard-chinese","display_name":"Standard Chinese","score":0.3727000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spoken-language","display_name":"Spoken language","score":0.3467000126838684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/translation","display_name":"Translation (biology)","score":0.32690000534057617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rule-based-machine-translation","display_name":"Rule-based machine translation","score":0.3093999922275543}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7486000061035156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.6970999836921692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138954614","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9192","display_name":"Mandarin Chinese","level":2,"score":0.6894999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6328999996185303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777530160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41796","display_name":"Sentence","level":2,"score":0.6148999929428101},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.5946999788284302},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.5443000197410583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203005215","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79798","display_name":"Machine translation","level":2,"score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.3912999927997589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776618157","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727694","display_name":"Standard Chinese","level":2,"score":0.3727000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776230583","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1322198","display_name":"Spoken language","level":2,"score":0.3467000126838684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149364088","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185917","display_name":"Translation (biology)","level":4,"score":0.32690000534057617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C53893814","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7378909","display_name":"Rule-based machine translation","level":2,"score":0.3093999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C520968082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134550","display_name":"Transliteration","level":2,"score":0.305400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986862884","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7553","display_name":"Language translation","level":3,"score":0.2992999851703644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780790391","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1149626","display_name":"Written language","level":2,"score":0.296099990606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.27480000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.27079999446868896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177454536","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q578290","display_name":"Emphasis (telecommunications)","level":2,"score":0.2558000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155092808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182557","display_name":"Computational linguistics","level":2,"score":0.2353000044822693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.23109999299049377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95457728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309","display_name":"History","level":0,"score":0.22859999537467957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60048249","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37437","display_name":"Syntax","level":2,"score":0.2214999943971634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018428822","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7850","display_name":"Chinese language","level":2,"score":0.21619999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.21400000154972076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78148190","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8192","display_name":"Writing system","level":2,"score":0.21330000460147858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018824978","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2894891","display_name":"Error analysis","level":2,"score":0.20649999380111694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16910744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7705759","display_name":"Test data","level":2,"score":0.20309999585151672},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59415355","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3484781","display_name":"Text simplification","level":3,"score":0.1881999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.1876000016927719},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26022165","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8091","display_name":"Grammar","level":2,"score":0.1859000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24687705","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3753284","display_name":"Example-based machine translation","level":3,"score":0.18549999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778698081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179797","display_name":"Thesaurus","level":2,"score":0.18310000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59650362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2304610","display_name":"Interrogative word","level":2,"score":0.18000000715255737},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179926584","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207714","display_name":"Transcription (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.17649999260902405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83535845","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82772","display_name":"Kanji","level":3,"score":0.17599999904632568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134510687","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1122094","display_name":"Dependent clause","level":3,"score":0.17589999735355377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776818064","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q829903","display_name":"Agreement","level":2,"score":0.17430000007152557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123406163","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82042","display_name":"Part of speech","level":2,"score":0.17170000076293945},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2985367798","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1346592","display_name":"Parallel corpora","level":3,"score":0.16899999976158142}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2505.17816","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.8060322403907776}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,53,65],"majority":[1],"of":[2,55,105,115,122,126,160,201],"inhabitants":[3],"in":[4,13,24,61,187,205],"Hong":[5],"Kong":[6],"are":[7,109],"able":[8,215],"to":[9,76,133,151,216],"read":[10],"and":[11,46,71,85,107,142,170,224],"write":[12],"standard":[14,50,222],"Chinese":[15,33,84,106,168,223],"but":[16],"use":[17],"Cantonese":[18,28,42,57,72,108,171],"as":[19],"the":[20,37,62,120],"primary":[21],"spoken":[22,225],"language":[23],"daily":[25],"life.":[26],"Spoken":[27],"can":[29],"be":[30],"transcribed":[31],"into":[32],"characters,":[34],"which":[35],"constitute":[36],"so-called":[38],"written":[39,51,56],"Cantonese.":[40,86,226],"Written":[41],"exhibits":[43],"significant":[44],"lexical":[45],"grammatical":[47],"differences":[48],"from":[49,138,164,182],"Chinese.":[52],"rise":[54],"is":[58,74,118,214],"increasingly":[59],"evident":[60],"cyber":[63],"world.":[64],"growing":[66],"interaction":[67],"between":[68,83,221],"Mandarin":[69],"speakers":[70,73],"leading":[75],"a":[77,90,112],"clear":[78],"demand":[79],"for":[80,97,129],"automatic":[81],"translation":[82,94,185,197],"This":[87],"paper":[88],"describes":[89],"transformer-based":[91],"neural":[92],"machine":[93],"(NMT)":[95],"system":[96,192,213],"written-Chinese-to-written-Cantonese":[98],"translation.":[99],"Given":[100],"that":[101,175,211],"parallel":[102,136,154,165],"text":[103],"data":[104,128],"extremely":[110],"scarce,":[111],"major":[113],"focus":[114],"this":[116],"study":[117],"on":[119,167,198],"effort":[121],"preparing":[123],"good":[124],"amount":[125],"training":[127],"NMT.":[130],"In":[131],"addition":[132],"collecting":[134],"28K":[135],"sentences":[137,155,163],"previous":[139],"linguistic":[140,219],"studies":[141],"scattered":[143],"internet":[144],"resources,":[145],"we":[146],"devise":[147],"an":[148],"effective":[149],"approach":[150],"obtaining":[152],"72K":[153],"by":[156],"automatically":[157],"extracting":[158],"pairs":[159,180],"semantically":[161],"similar":[162,178],"articles":[166],"Wikipedia":[169,183],"Wikipedia.":[172],"We":[173],"show":[174],"leveraging":[176],"highly":[177],"sentence":[179],"mined":[181],"improves":[184],"performance":[186],"all":[188],"test":[189,203],"sets.":[190],"Our":[191],"outperforms":[193],"Baidu":[194],"Fanyi's":[195],"Chinese-to-Cantonese":[196],"6":[199],"out":[200],"8":[202],"sets":[204],"BLEU":[206],"scores.":[207],"Translation":[208],"examples":[209],"reveal":[210],"our":[212],"capture":[217],"important":[218],"transformations":[220]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-01T06:00:48.157686","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}