{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4385848742","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2308.06668","title":"Large Language Models and Foundation Models in Smart Agriculture: Basics, Opportunities, and Challenges","display_name":"Large Language Models and Foundation Models in Smart Agriculture: Basics, Opportunities, and Challenges","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-08-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4385848742","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2308.06668"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2308.06668","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2308.06668","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2308.06668","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"text"},"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["arxiv","datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2308.06668","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108050429","display_name":"Jiajia Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2894-6458"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Li, Jiajia","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049093657","display_name":"Mingle Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2662-6864"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xu, Mingle","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033662126","display_name":"Lirong Xiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1573-0906"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiang, Lirong","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101269763","display_name":"Dong Chen","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chen, Dong","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083074361","display_name":"Weichao Zhuang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4958-1446"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhuang, Weichao","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032657663","display_name":"Xunyuan Yin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9823-9209"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yin, Xunyuan","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101652244","display_name":"Zhaojian Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1991-8711"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Li, Zhaojian","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5108050429"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":7,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.9936000108718872,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.9936000108718872,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6750633716583252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generalizability-theory","display_name":"Generalizability theory","score":0.6142760515213013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.5752995610237122},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.5390869975090027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.49673277139663696},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4961572587490082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","score":0.4547904431819916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modalities","display_name":"Modalities","score":0.4448024034500122},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.4395039677619934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/agriculture","display_name":"Agriculture","score":0.43047791719436646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.42589762806892395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.37107810378074646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-analysis","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","score":0.3563016355037689},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process-management","display_name":"Process management","score":0.3494364619255066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/systems-engineering","display_name":"Systems engineering","score":0.30342695116996765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-engineering","display_name":"Software engineering","score":0.277921199798584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.21521779894828796}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6750633716583252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27158222","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532422","display_name":"Generalizability theory","level":2,"score":0.6142760515213013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5752995610237122},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.5390869975090027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.49673277139663696},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4961572587490082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.4547904431819916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779903281","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6888026","display_name":"Modalities","level":2,"score":0.4448024034500122},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.4395039677619934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118518473","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11451","display_name":"Agriculture","level":2,"score":0.43047791719436646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.42589762806892395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.37107810378074646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.3563016355037689},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195094911","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14167904","display_name":"Process management","level":1,"score":0.3494364619255066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.30342695116996765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115903868","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80993","display_name":"Software engineering","level":1,"score":0.277921199798584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.21521779894828796},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2308.06668","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2308.06668","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2308.06668","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2308.06668","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2308.06668","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2308.06668","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2308.06668","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2308.06668","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7599999904632568,"display_name":"Zero hunger","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/2"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4385848742.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2118717649","https://openalex.org/W2413243053","https://openalex.org/W410723623","https://openalex.org/W2015341305","https://openalex.org/W2035068594","https://openalex.org/W4225593417","https://openalex.org/W2573498121","https://openalex.org/W3022298670","https://openalex.org/W3160494304","https://openalex.org/W3006162251"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"past":[1],"decade":[2],"has":[3,120],"witnessed":[4],"the":[5,136,141,157,160,174,181,199,234,253,261],"rapid":[6],"development":[7,47],"and":[8,48,50,75,94,107,116,150,163,180,194,208,218,230,259,264],"adoption":[9],"of":[10,89,124,138,143,159,201,236,266],"ML":[11],"&":[12],"DL":[13],"methodologies":[14],"in":[15,22,72,140,173,211,238],"agricultural":[16,23,267],"systems,":[17],"showcased":[18],"by":[19,242],"great":[20],"successes":[21,71],"applications.":[24],"However,":[25],"these":[26],"conventional":[27],"ML/DL":[28],"models":[29,82,182],"have":[30,68],"certain":[31],"limitations:":[32],"they":[33,98],"heavily":[34],"rely":[35],"on":[36,85,255],"large,":[37],"costly-to-acquire":[38],"labeled":[39,110,257],"datasets":[40,258],"for":[41,46,54],"training,":[42,228],"require":[43],"specialized":[44],"expertise":[45],"maintenance,":[49],"are":[51,83,153,178,183,206,214,224],"mostly":[52],"tailored":[53],"specific":[55],"tasks,":[56],"thus":[57],"lacking":[58],"generalizability.":[59],"Recently,":[60],"large":[61,87],"pre-trained":[62],"models,":[63],"also":[64],"known":[65],"as":[66,245],"FMs,":[67,189,191,193],"demonstrated":[69],"remarkable":[70],"language,":[73],"vision,":[74],"decision-making":[76],"tasks":[77,102],"across":[78],"various":[79],"domains.":[80],"These":[81],"trained":[84],"a":[86,246],"amount":[88],"data":[90],"from":[91],"multiple":[92],"domains":[93],"modalities.":[95],"Once":[96],"trained,":[97],"can":[99,250],"accomplish":[100],"versatile":[101],"with":[103,221],"just":[104],"minor":[105],"fine-tuning":[106],"minimal":[108],"task-specific":[109],"data.":[111],"Despite":[112],"their":[113],"proven":[114],"effectiveness":[115],"huge":[117],"potential,":[118],"there":[119],"been":[121],"little":[122],"exploration":[123],"applying":[125],"FMs":[126,139,172,204],"to":[127,134,155],"agriculture":[128,203,213,239],"AI.":[129],"Thus,":[130],"this":[131,169],"study":[132],"aims":[133],"explore":[135],"potential":[137,209],"field":[142],"smart":[144,212],"agriculture.":[145],"In":[146,232],"particular,":[147],"conceptual":[148],"tools":[149],"technical":[151],"background":[152],"presented":[154],"help":[156],"understanding":[158],"problem":[161],"space":[162],"uncover":[164],"new":[165],"research":[166],"directions.":[167],"To":[168],"end,":[170],"recent":[171],"general":[175],"CS":[176],"domain":[177],"reviewed,":[179],"categorized":[184],"into":[185],"four":[186],"categories:":[187],"language":[188],"vision":[190],"multimodal":[192],"reinforcement":[195],"learning":[196],"FMs.":[197],"Then,":[198],"steps":[200],"developing":[202,222],"(AFMs)":[205],"outlined":[207],"applications":[210],"discussed.":[215],"Moreover,":[216],"challenges":[217],"risks":[219],"associated":[220],"AFMs":[223,244],"discussed,":[225],"including":[226],"model":[227],"validation,":[229],"deployment.":[231],"summary,":[233],"advancement":[235],"AI":[237,268],"is":[240],"explored":[241],"introducing":[243],"promising":[247],"paradigm":[248],"that":[249],"significantly":[251],"mitigate":[252],"reliance":[254],"extensive":[256],"enhance":[260],"efficiency,":[262],"effectiveness,":[263],"generalization":[265],"systems.":[269]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6}],"updated_date":"2026-03-13T16:22:10.518609","created_date":"2023-08-16T00:00:00"}