{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414017206","doi":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","title":"Accelerating NTT with RISC-V Vector Extension for Fully Homomorphic Encryption","display_name":"Accelerating NTT with RISC-V Vector Extension for Fully Homomorphic Encryption","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414017206","doi":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/12426/12154","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/12426/12154","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041893793","display_name":"Tiago Rodrigues","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1255-9667"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tiago B. Rodrigues","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101864965","display_name":"Alexandre Rodrigues","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8185-9194"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alexandre Rodrigues","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086166001","display_name":"Manuel Goul\u00e3o","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6478-2038"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Manuel Goul\u00e3o","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5075054918","display_name":"Pedro Tom\u00e1s","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8083-4432"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pedro Tom\u00e1s","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077537777","display_name":"Leonel Sousa","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8066-221X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Leonel Sousa","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.4083,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90381424,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"2025","issue":"4","first_page":"711","last_page":"736"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9944000244140625,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11693","display_name":"Cryptography and Residue Arithmetic","score":0.9941999912261963,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.8863027691841125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/extension","display_name":"Extension (predicate logic)","score":0.7655667066574097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6297176480293274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.5073432326316833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bch-code","display_name":"BCH code","score":0.47912025451660156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.3267657458782196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/theoretical-computer-science","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","score":0.3241071105003357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.25289833545684814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.19649097323417664},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.1823003590106964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/decoding-methods","display_name":"Decoding methods","score":0.0736449658870697}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.8863027691841125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778029271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5421931","display_name":"Extension (predicate logic)","level":2,"score":0.7655667066574097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6297176480293274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.5073432326316833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42276685","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q795705","display_name":"BCH code","level":3,"score":0.47912025451660156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.3267657458782196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.3241071105003357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.25289833545684814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.19649097323417664},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.1823003590106964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57273362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576722","display_name":"Decoding methods","level":2,"score":0.0736449658870697}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/12426/12154","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:ff8a18afd95c443ca4a2b450b3d89752","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/ff8a18afd95c443ca4a2b450b3d89752","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems, Vol 2025, Iss 4 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2025.i4.711-736","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/12426/12154","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2441341484","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores, Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento em Lisboa","funder_award_id":"UIDB/50021/2020","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334779","funder_display_name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3019180854","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/50021/2020","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334779","funder_display_name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G434337789","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"HORIZON2020","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7875605236","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101036168","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320318377","display_name":"European Defence Fund","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334779","display_name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","ror":"https://ror.org/00snfqn58"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414017206.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414017206.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2912502034","https://openalex.org/W2319574489","https://openalex.org/W2035908476","https://openalex.org/W2506979107","https://openalex.org/W4239727543","https://openalex.org/W2612882049","https://openalex.org/W2284101512","https://openalex.org/W1604083761","https://openalex.org/W2262711716","https://openalex.org/W2155069045"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Fully":[0],"Homomorphic":[1],"Encryption":[2],"(FHE)":[3],"has":[4],"gained":[5],"increasing":[6],"importance":[7],"mainly":[8],"due":[9],"to":[10,47,60,90],"its":[11,134],"potential":[12],"use":[13,92],"in":[14,49,113,179],"privacy-preserving":[15],"cloud":[16],"computing.":[17],"This":[18,102],"privacy":[19],"stems":[20],"from":[21],"the":[22,33,50,53,91,98,105,117,128,140,159,186],"computation":[23],"being":[24],"directly":[25],"performed":[26],"on":[27],"data":[28],"that":[29],"is":[30,67,78],"encrypted":[31],"by":[32,83,109],"client.":[34],"However,":[35],"FHE":[36,77,108,130,148],"comes":[37],"with":[38,72,175],"a":[39,79,164,173,181,196],"major":[40,80],"cost":[41],"regarding":[42],"computational":[43],"requirements.":[44],"When":[45],"compared":[46],"processing":[48],"unencrypted":[51],"domain,":[52],"time":[54,73],"it":[55,124],"takes":[56],"can":[57],"be":[58],"up":[59],"four":[61],"orders":[62],"of":[63,93,107,167,183,198],"magnitude":[64],"higher,":[65],"which":[66],"particularly":[68],"inconvenient":[69],"for":[70,172,185],"applications":[71],"constraints.":[74],"Hence,":[75],"accelerating":[76],"research":[81],"line,":[82],"leveraging":[84,110],"different":[85,147],"mathematical":[86],"schemes":[87],"and":[88,126,139,156,161],"algorithms":[89,149],"specialized":[94],"hardware":[95],"accelerators":[96],"targeting":[97],"most":[99],"time-consuming":[100],"operations.":[101],"paper":[103],"targets":[104],"optimization":[106],"vectorized":[111],"implementations":[112],"RISC-V":[114,118],"processors,":[115],"using":[116],"Vector":[119],"(RVV)":[120],"extension.":[121],"In":[122,144],"particular,":[123],"implements":[125],"accelerates":[127],"Open-Source":[129],"library,":[131,146],"OpenFHE,":[132,180],"optimizing":[133],"Number":[135],"Theoretic":[136],"Transform":[137],"(NTT)":[138],"Inverse-NTT":[141],"(INTT)":[142],"components.":[143],"this":[145],"(BGV,":[150],"BFV,":[151],"CKKS)":[152],"were":[153],"analyzed,":[154],"optimized,":[155],"tested.":[157],"For":[158],"NTT":[160],"INTT":[162],"operations,":[163],"maximum":[165],"speedup":[166,182,197],"27.05x":[168],"was":[169,189],"obtained.":[170],"Furthermore,":[171],"multiplication":[174],"bootstrapping":[176],"benchmark":[177],"program":[178],"1.94x":[184],"CKKS":[187],"scheme":[188],"attained.":[190],"Additionally,":[191],"neural":[192],"network":[193],"benchmarks":[194],"exhibit":[195],"over":[199],"1.69x.":[200]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-08-04T08:18:43.703281","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
