{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4400837093","doi":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","title":"Hints from Hertz: Dynamic Frequency Scaling Side-Channel Analysis of Number Theoretic Transform in Lattice-Based KEMs","display_name":"Hints from Hertz: Dynamic Frequency Scaling Side-Channel Analysis of Number Theoretic Transform in Lattice-Based KEMs","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-07-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4400837093","doi":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/11675/11196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/11675/11196","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114194360","display_name":"Tianrun Yu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3124059619","display_name":"China University of Geosciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04gcegc37","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tianrun Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China","State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111563996","display_name":"Chi Ho Cheng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3124059619","display_name":"China University of Geosciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04gcegc37","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chi Cheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China","State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100300574","display_name":"Zilong Yang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149594827","display_name":"Xidian University","ror":"https://ror.org/05s92vm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3124059619","display_name":"China University of Geosciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04gcegc37","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zilong Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xian, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149594827"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Key Laboratory of Intelligent Geo-Information Processing, School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3124059619"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5115588255","display_name":"Yingchen Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0733-8533"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I86519309","display_name":"The University of Texas at Austin","ror":"https://ror.org/00hj54h04","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I86519309"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yingchen Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86519309"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100928068","display_name":"Yanbin Pan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I19820366","display_name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/034t30j35","country_code":"CN","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I19820366"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210120485","display_name":"Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science","ror":"https://ror.org/02jkmyk67","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I19820366","https://openalex.org/I4210120485"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yanbin Pan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Key Laboratory of Mathematics Mechanization, Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Key Laboratory of Mathematics Mechanization, Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210120485","https://openalex.org/I19820366"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082041657","display_name":"Jian Weng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4067-8230"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159948400","display_name":"Jinan University","ror":"https://ror.org/02xe5ns62","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159948400"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jian Weng","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Information Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Information Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159948400"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.9164,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.78526936,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"2024","issue":"3","first_page":"200","last_page":"223"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11017","display_name":"Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption","score":0.9991000294685364,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/side-channel-attack","display_name":"Side channel attack","score":0.7377898097038269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hamming-weight","display_name":"Hamming weight","score":0.6039872765541077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5844659805297852},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/leakage","display_name":"Leakage (economics)","score":0.5438710451126099},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.5376722812652588},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-leakage","display_name":"Information leakage","score":0.5074834227561951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/power-analysis","display_name":"Power analysis","score":0.49513617157936096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computation","display_name":"Computation","score":0.4357263743877411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hamming-code","display_name":"Hamming code","score":0.39196720719337463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-engineering","display_name":"Computer engineering","score":0.3401128947734833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.2742845416069031},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/decoding-methods","display_name":"Decoding methods","score":0.21581876277923584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.19141343235969543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/block-code","display_name":"Block code","score":0.10355949401855469}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49289754","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2267081","display_name":"Side channel attack","level":3,"score":0.7377898097038269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63361517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5645805","display_name":"Hamming weight","level":5,"score":0.6039872765541077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5844659805297852},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777042071","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6509304","display_name":"Leakage (economics)","level":2,"score":0.5438710451126099},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.5376722812652588},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779201187","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2775060","display_name":"Information leakage","level":2,"score":0.5074834227561951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71743495","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2845210","display_name":"Power analysis","level":3,"score":0.49513617157936096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.4357263743877411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73150493","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853922","display_name":"Hamming code","level":4,"score":0.39196720719337463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113775141","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428691","display_name":"Computer engineering","level":1,"score":0.3401128947734833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.2742845416069031},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57273362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576722","display_name":"Decoding methods","level":2,"score":0.21581876277923584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.19141343235969543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157125643","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q884707","display_name":"Block code","level":3,"score":0.10355949401855469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139719470","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39680","display_name":"Macroeconomics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/11675/11196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:1a186f5b4d3b47e985432be5ccb7ea5d","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/1a186f5b4d3b47e985432be5ccb7ea5d","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems, Vol 2024, Iss 3 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.46586/tches.v2024.i3.200-223","pdf_url":"https://tches.iacr.org/index.php/TCHES/article/download/11675/11196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210207404","display_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","issn_l":"2569-2925","issn":["2569-2925"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4400837093.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":18,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1607264302","https://openalex.org/W2245734289","https://openalex.org/W2494078997","https://openalex.org/W2791664942","https://openalex.org/W2979160478","https://openalex.org/W3013288840","https://openalex.org/W3184403650","https://openalex.org/W3202783877","https://openalex.org/W4225682136","https://openalex.org/W4240339612","https://openalex.org/W4282968709","https://openalex.org/W4283723288","https://openalex.org/W4310995020","https://openalex.org/W4323319870","https://openalex.org/W4376456917","https://openalex.org/W4380084284","https://openalex.org/W4383221505","https://openalex.org/W4389870836"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W5280335","https://openalex.org/W2164725015","https://openalex.org/W2782264121","https://openalex.org/W2022533428","https://openalex.org/W2769734684","https://openalex.org/W2184825947","https://openalex.org/W2507607395","https://openalex.org/W2584285084","https://openalex.org/W1796231437","https://openalex.org/W4319079458"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Number":[0],"Theoretic":[1],"Transform":[2],"(NTT)":[3],"has":[4],"been":[5],"widely":[6],"used":[7],"in":[8,11,62,78,187,205,246],"accelerating":[9],"computations":[10],"lattice-based":[12,63,247],"cryptography.":[13,248],"However,":[14],"attackers":[15],"can":[16],"potentially":[17],"launch":[18],"power":[19,242],"analysis":[20,240],"targeting":[21],"the":[22,29,34,53,86,90,104,152,159,172,180,199,224,239],"NTT":[23,61,73,107,110,186,228,245],"because":[24],"it":[25],"is":[26,68,208,215,229],"one":[27],"of":[28,33,44,92,166,185,201,241],"most":[30],"time-consuming":[31],"parts":[32],"implementation.":[35],"This":[36,142],"extended":[37],"time":[38],"frame":[39],"provides":[40],"a":[41,96,164,219],"natural":[42],"window":[43],"opportunity":[45],"for":[46,235],"attackers.":[47],"In":[48],"this":[49],"paper,":[50],"we":[51,94,162],"investigate":[52],"first":[54],"CPU":[55,87],"frequency":[56,88,149,175,202],"leakage":[57,204,243],"(Hertzbleed-like)":[58],"attacks":[59],"against":[60,244],"KEMs.":[64],"Our":[65],"key":[66],"observation":[67,214],"that":[69,108,127,212],"different":[70,75],"inputs":[71],"to":[72,102,106,124,145,210,218,238],"incur":[74],"Hamming":[76,116],"weights":[77],"its":[79],"output":[80],"and":[81,136,139,176,182,190],"intermediate":[82],"layers.":[83],"By":[84],"measuring":[85],"during":[89],"execution":[91],"NTT,":[93],"propose":[95],"simple":[97],"yet":[98],"effective":[99],"attack":[100,122],"idea":[101,123],"find":[103],"input":[105],"triggers":[109],"processing":[111],"data":[112],"with":[113,194],"significantly":[114],"low":[115],"weight.":[117],"We":[118],"further":[119],"apply":[120],"our":[121,195,213,232],"real-world":[125],"applications":[126],"are":[128],"built":[129],"upon":[130],"NTT:":[131],"CPAsecure":[132],"Kyber":[133,189],"without":[134],"Compression":[135],"Decompression":[137],"functions,":[138],"CCA-secure":[140],"NTTRU.":[141],"leads":[143],"us":[144],"extract":[146],"information":[147],"or":[148],"hints":[150,157],"about":[151],"secret":[153],"key.":[154],"Integrating":[155],"these":[156],"into":[158],"LWE-estimator":[160],"framework,":[161],"estimate":[163],"minimum":[165],"35%":[167],"security":[168],"loss":[169],"caused":[170],"by":[171],"leakage.":[173],"The":[174],"timing":[177],"measurements":[178],"on":[179,226],"Reference":[181],"AVX2":[183],"implementations":[184],"both":[188],"NTTRU":[191],"align":[192],"well":[193],"theoretical":[196],"analysis,":[197],"confirming":[198],"existence":[200],"side-channel":[203],"NTT.":[206],"It":[207],"important":[209],"emphasize":[211],"not":[216],"limited":[217],"specific":[220],"implementation":[221],"but":[222],"rather":[223],"algorithm":[225],"which":[227],"based.":[230],"Therefore,":[231],"results":[233],"call":[234],"more":[236],"attention":[237]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}