{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4313573188","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","title":"An Improved TDOA Method for Land-Based Long-Range HF Skywave Source Geolocation and Experimental Results","display_name":"An Improved TDOA Method for Land-Based Long-Range HF Skywave Source Geolocation and Experimental Results","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-02","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4313573188","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36617104"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23010507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/1/507/pdf?version=1672910374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/1/507/pdf?version=1672910374","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067747276","display_name":"Chen Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5478-6502"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chen Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031824393","display_name":"Hongtao Cai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8534-0538"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hongtao Cai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080815893","display_name":"Shunzu Gao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5135-4202"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shunzu Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronics and Information, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113935886","display_name":"Qingwei Zhai","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2800372957","display_name":"China Electronics Technology Group Corporation","ror":"https://ror.org/0098hst83","country_code":"CN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2800372957"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qingwei Zhai","raw_affiliation_strings":["The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation (CETC 54), Shijiazhuang 050000, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation (CETC 54), Shijiazhuang 050000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2800372957"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5031824393"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":0.2674,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.50190138,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":95},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"1","first_page":"507","last_page":"507"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10655","display_name":"GNSS positioning and interference","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10931","display_name":"Direction-of-Arrival Estimation Techniques","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geolocation","display_name":"Geolocation","score":0.9201370477676392},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multilateration","display_name":"Multilateration","score":0.9092949032783508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/skywave","display_name":"Skywave","score":0.8850874304771423},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/non-line-of-sight-propagation","display_name":"Non-line-of-sight propagation","score":0.7383174896240234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7344732284545898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/a-priori-and-a-posteriori","display_name":"A priori and a posteriori","score":0.5377166271209717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/over-the-horizon-radar","display_name":"Over-the-horizon radar","score":0.5170203447341919},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ionosphere","display_name":"Ionosphere","score":0.5141994953155518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.4663272202014923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ray-tracing","display_name":"Ray tracing (physics)","score":0.44485539197921753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fdoa","display_name":"FDOA","score":0.4402490556240082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/range","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","score":0.42775455117225647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.3880596458911896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.21682336926460266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geology","display_name":"Geology","score":0.19517847895622253},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/azimuth","display_name":"Azimuth","score":0.16704407334327698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geophysics","display_name":"Geophysics","score":0.1362711489200592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless","display_name":"Wireless","score":0.11990013718605042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optics","display_name":"Optics","score":0.09857475757598877},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.08247694373130798}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22041718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q638949","display_name":"Geolocation","level":2,"score":0.9201370477676392},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104037064","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1640884","display_name":"Multilateration","level":3,"score":0.9092949032783508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45860500","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1639901","display_name":"Skywave","level":3,"score":0.8850874304771423},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154910267","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1740982","display_name":"Non-line-of-sight propagation","level":3,"score":0.7383174896240234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7344732284545898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75553542","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178161","display_name":"A priori and a posteriori","level":2,"score":0.5377166271209717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183617614","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q332548","display_name":"Over-the-horizon radar","level":3,"score":0.5170203447341919},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116403925","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162219","display_name":"Ionosphere","level":2,"score":0.5141994953155518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.4663272202014923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121483023","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7298343","display_name":"Ray tracing (physics)","level":2,"score":0.44485539197921753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14774633","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5425288","display_name":"FDOA","level":4,"score":0.4402490556240082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.42775455117225647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.3880596458911896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.21682336926460266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.19517847895622253},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159737794","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124274","display_name":"Azimuth","level":2,"score":0.16704407334327698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8058405","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46255","display_name":"Geophysics","level":1,"score":0.1362711489200592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.11990013718605042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.09857475757598877},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.08247694373130798},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159985019","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181790","display_name":"Composite material","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23010507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/1/507/pdf?version=1672910374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:36617104","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36617104","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9823903","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9823903","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:6d39356709f04427abf55bbb637d9b25","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/6d39356709f04427abf55bbb637d9b25","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 23, Iss 1, p 507 (2023)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/23/1/507/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 23; Issue 1; Pages: 507","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23010507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010507","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/1/507/pdf?version=1672910374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4313573188.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":31,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1497886808","https://openalex.org/W1569371188","https://openalex.org/W1965006965","https://openalex.org/W1978906163","https://openalex.org/W1991949007","https://openalex.org/W1996404186","https://openalex.org/W1998435731","https://openalex.org/W2005685324","https://openalex.org/W2010852230","https://openalex.org/W2013948406","https://openalex.org/W2017982824","https://openalex.org/W2035539843","https://openalex.org/W2063304637","https://openalex.org/W2069451831","https://openalex.org/W2072384273","https://openalex.org/W2101658087","https://openalex.org/W2113659624","https://openalex.org/W2114351513","https://openalex.org/W2128658063","https://openalex.org/W2146327423","https://openalex.org/W2343992193","https://openalex.org/W2621228682","https://openalex.org/W2776024871","https://openalex.org/W2884549569","https://openalex.org/W2889654456","https://openalex.org/W2912522929","https://openalex.org/W3002273327","https://openalex.org/W3020479979","https://openalex.org/W3045101173","https://openalex.org/W4244288018","https://openalex.org/W6776576543"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2027655252","https://openalex.org/W4390570342","https://openalex.org/W2776253891","https://openalex.org/W2129263947","https://openalex.org/W2038717975","https://openalex.org/W2116898455","https://openalex.org/W2167167730","https://openalex.org/W2099670352","https://openalex.org/W2906254345","https://openalex.org/W2800666448"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"real-time":[1],"information":[2,63],"of":[3,18,73,138],"the":[4,13,37,41,65,68,82,88,110,112,129,155,159,170,174],"unknown":[5],"ionospheric":[6,70,96],"environments":[7],"is":[8,75,115,179],"difficult":[9],"to":[10,102],"obtain,":[11],"plaguing":[12],"timely":[14,78],"and":[15,45,79,92,120,150,173],"accurate":[16],"geolocation":[17,33,122],"high":[19],"frequency":[20],"(HF)":[21],"sources.":[22,84],"In":[23,109,128],"this":[24,59],"paper,":[25],"we":[26,86],"propose":[27],"an":[28],"improved":[29],"HF":[30,47,83,105,131,139],"skywave":[31],"source":[32],"method":[34,114,157],"based":[35],"on":[36],"time-difference-of-arrival":[38],"(TDOA)":[39],"with":[40,53,117,146,166],"semidefinite":[42],"programming":[43],"(SDP),":[44],"model":[46,101],"signal":[48,106],"propagation":[49,107],"paths":[50,52],"as":[51],"significant":[54],"non-line-of-sight":[55],"(NLOS)":[56],"biases.":[57],"With":[58],"method,":[60],"no":[61],"priori":[62,69],"about":[64,163],"ionosphere,":[66],"especially":[67],"virtual":[71],"heights":[72],"reflection,":[74],"necessary":[76],"while":[77],"accurately":[80],"geolocating":[81],"Furthermore,":[85],"use":[87],"ray":[89],"tracing":[90],"technique":[91],"build":[93],"a":[94],"3D":[95],"electron":[97],"density":[98],"gridded":[99],"matrix":[100],"simulate":[103],"realistic":[104],"paths.":[108],"simulations,":[111],"proposed":[113,156],"compared":[116,165],"existing":[118,167],"methods,":[119],"detailed":[121],"error":[123,178],"distribution":[124],"maps":[125],"are":[126,141],"given.":[127],"experiments,":[130],"I/Q":[132],"data":[133],"captured":[134],"from":[135],"different":[136],"types":[137],"transmitters":[140],"located":[142],"by":[143,162],"six":[144],"receivers":[145],"time":[147],"synchronization.":[148],"Simulated":[149],"experimental":[151],"results":[152],"show":[153],"that":[154],"improves":[158],"positioning":[160,177],"accuracy":[161],"50%":[164],"methods":[168],"under":[169],"same":[171],"conditions,":[172],"average":[175],"relative":[176],"less":[180],"than":[181],"2.7%.":[182]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-12-23T23:11:35.936235","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}