{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7151860528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040353","title":"Exploring the Application of Large Language Models (LLMs) in Data Structure Instruction: An Empirical Analysis of Student Learning Outcomes in Computer Science","display_name":"Exploring the Application of Large Language Models (LLMs) in Data Structure Instruction: An Empirical Analysis of Student Learning Outcomes in Computer Science","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7151860528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040353"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040353","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/353/pdf?version=1775631374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/353/pdf?version=1775631374","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121759644","display_name":"Hongzhi Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210089621","display_name":"Chizhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/007cx7r28","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hongzhi Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5883-3780","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133183210","display_name":"Lijun Xiao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I198357462","display_name":"Changsha University","ror":"https://ror.org/011d8sm39","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I198357462"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lijun Xiao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Economics and Management, Changsha University, Changsha 410000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Economics and Management, Changsha University, Changsha 410000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I198357462"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102790234","display_name":"Kezhong Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4617-2882"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210089621","display_name":"Chizhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/007cx7r28","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kezhong Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121823160","display_name":"Dun Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dun Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133208871","display_name":"Zheqing Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210089621","display_name":"Chizhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/007cx7r28","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zheqing Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133167904","display_name":"Qishou Xia","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210089621","display_name":"Chizhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/007cx7r28","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qishou Xia","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Chizhou University, Chizhou 247000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210089621"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5121759644","https://openalex.org/A5133183210"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I198357462","https://openalex.org/I4210089621"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.32662433,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"4","first_page":"353","last_page":"353"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8826000094413757,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8826000094413757,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11948","display_name":"Machine Learning in Materials Science","score":0.02590000070631504,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13910","display_name":"Computational and Text Analysis Methods","score":0.007199999876320362,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3300","display_name":"General Social Sciences"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coursework","display_name":"Coursework","score":0.6212999820709229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/association","display_name":"Association (psychology)","score":0.5864999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/associative-learning","display_name":"Associative learning","score":0.4041999876499176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.3781000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learning-sciences","display_name":"Learning sciences","score":0.33309999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/associative-property","display_name":"Associative property","score":0.32100000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/academic-achievement","display_name":"Academic achievement","score":0.31859999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.31690001487731934}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781110425","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2074695","display_name":"Coursework","level":2,"score":0.6212999820709229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142853389","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744778","display_name":"Association (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5864999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4404999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4101000130176544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983526489","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133500","display_name":"Associative learning","level":2,"score":0.4041999876499176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.3781000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3571000099182129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.3537999987602234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96427005","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q98442705","display_name":"Learning sciences","level":3,"score":0.33309999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.32120001316070557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159423971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177251","display_name":"Associative property","level":2,"score":0.32100000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781206393","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2748419","display_name":"Academic achievement","level":2,"score":0.31859999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.31690001487731934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779114481","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6510117","display_name":"Learning Management","level":2,"score":0.2912999987602234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.28619998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13606891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2623243","display_name":"Conceptual model","level":2,"score":0.2847000062465668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48164120","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4491893","display_name":"Concept learning","level":2,"score":0.28450000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.27810001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14224292","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13600188","display_name":"Conceptual framework","level":2,"score":0.2685999870300293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.26589998602867126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77967617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4677561","display_name":"Active learning (machine learning)","level":2,"score":0.26510000228881836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16443162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068473","display_name":"Educational technology","level":2,"score":0.2628999948501587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166052673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83021","display_name":"Empirical evidence","level":2,"score":0.25999999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74672266","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815859","display_name":"Language acquisition","level":2,"score":0.2549000084400177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.25270000100135803}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040353","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/353/pdf?version=1775631374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:2ac09170296f40c99cf93bc37e2b8297","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/2ac09170296f40c99cf93bc37e2b8297","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Information, Vol 17, Iss 4, p 353 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040353","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040353","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/353/pdf?version=1775631374","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.855562150478363}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4460154438","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"NO. 2023cxtd","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320333879","funder_display_name":"Anhui Provincial Quality Engineering Project"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7714546727","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"NO. 2024aijy432","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320333879","funder_display_name":"Anhui Provincial Quality Engineering Project"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320333879","display_name":"Anhui Provincial Quality Engineering Project","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7151860528.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7151860528.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391661457","https://openalex.org/W4392013691","https://openalex.org/W4393161262","https://openalex.org/W4393943518","https://openalex.org/W4402850557","https://openalex.org/W4403906927","https://openalex.org/W4403961927","https://openalex.org/W4404316214","https://openalex.org/W4406423087","https://openalex.org/W4407204952","https://openalex.org/W4407320582","https://openalex.org/W4407950740","https://openalex.org/W4408216510","https://openalex.org/W4409625555","https://openalex.org/W4410273208","https://openalex.org/W4410986572","https://openalex.org/W4411184077","https://openalex.org/W4411534708","https://openalex.org/W4411736612","https://openalex.org/W4412369228","https://openalex.org/W4412441827","https://openalex.org/W4413069744","https://openalex.org/W4414360799","https://openalex.org/W4416188516","https://openalex.org/W4416695291","https://openalex.org/W4416848201","https://openalex.org/W7108977607","https://openalex.org/W7125597305","https://openalex.org/W7127371944"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"advancements":[1],"in":[2,62,76,99],"Large":[3],"Language":[4],"Models":[5],"(LLMs),":[6],"including":[7,21,157],"ChatGPT,":[8],"DeepSeek,":[9],"and":[10,33,37,59,91,124,145,160,181,220],"Claude,":[11],"have":[12],"facilitated":[13],"their":[14,26,102],"growing":[15],"integration":[16],"into":[17,232],"computer":[18],"science":[19],"education,":[20],"data":[22,63,233],"structure":[23,64,234],"courses.":[24],"Despite":[25],"widespread":[27],"adoption,":[28],"the":[29,54,136,150,194,215,226],"association":[30,55,114,167,192,213],"between":[31,56,115,135,178],"sustained":[32],"informal":[34],"LLM":[35,57,94,139,179,184,208],"usage":[36,58,95,140,180,185,209],"students\u2019":[38,241],"learning":[39,126,143,182,188,204,238],"outcomes":[40],"remains":[41],"insufficiently":[42],"understood.":[43],"This":[44,223],"study":[45,71,224],"seeks":[46],"to":[47,101,236],"address":[48],"this":[49],"gap":[50],"by":[51],"empirically":[52],"examining":[53],"undergraduate":[60,74],"performance":[61,104],"education.":[65],"We":[66],"conduct":[67],"a":[68,111,164,174,190,202,211],"twelve-week":[69],"empirical":[70],"involving":[72],"fifty-four":[73],"students,":[75],"which":[77],"LLMs":[78,119,153,231],"were":[79],"made":[80],"freely":[81],"accessible":[82],"but":[83],"neither":[84],"explicitly":[85],"encouraged":[86],"nor":[87],"discouraged":[88],"during":[89],"coursework":[90],"assignments.":[92],"Students\u2019":[93],"patterns":[96],"are":[97],"analyzed":[98],"relation":[100],"academic":[103,146],"across":[105,141],"different":[106],"task":[107],"types.":[108],"Findings":[109],"reveal":[110],"significant":[112],"negative":[113,212],"extensive":[116],"reliance":[117],"on":[118],"for":[120,154,186],"cognitively":[121],"demanding":[122],"tasks":[123],"overall":[125],"outcomes.":[127],"Additionally,":[128],"an":[129],"inverse":[130],"associative":[131,176],"trend":[132],"is":[133],"observed":[134],"frequency":[137],"of":[138,152,196,217,228],"some":[142],"activities":[144],"performance.":[147,170],"In":[148],"contrast,":[149],"use":[151],"supplementary":[155,203],"purposes,":[156],"conceptual":[158,187],"clarification":[159],"theoretical":[161],"understanding,":[162],"exhibits":[163],"notably":[165],"positive":[166,191],"with":[168,193,214],"final":[169],"These":[171],"findings":[172],"suggest":[173],"task-dependent":[175],"relationship":[177],"outcomes:":[183],"shows":[189,210],"mastery":[195],"relevant":[197],"knowledge":[198],"when":[199],"used":[200],"as":[201],"tool,":[205],"while":[206,239],"excessive":[207],"development":[216],"fundamental":[218],"analytical":[219],"problem-solving":[221],"skills.":[222],"highlights":[225],"importance":[227],"carefully":[229],"integrating":[230],"education":[235],"support":[237],"preserving":[240],"independent":[242],"cognitive":[243],"engagement.":[244]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2026-04-09T00:00:00"}
