{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127193729","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077","title":"Aerial Image Analysis: When LLMs Assist (And When Not)","display_name":"Aerial Image Analysis: When LLMs Assist (And When Not)","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127193729","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020077","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124788997","display_name":"Salvatore Calcagno","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39063666","display_name":"University of Catania","ror":"https://ror.org/03a64bh57","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Salvatore Calcagno","raw_affiliation_strings":["Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119285279","display_name":"Erika Scaletta","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3692-6091"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39063666","display_name":"University of Catania","ror":"https://ror.org/03a64bh57","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Erika Scaletta","raw_affiliation_strings":["Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3692-6091","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011707033","display_name":"Emiliano Tramontana","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7169-659X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39063666","display_name":"University of Catania","ror":"https://ror.org/03a64bh57","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Emiliano Tramontana","raw_affiliation_strings":["Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7169-659X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082619241","display_name":"Gabriella Verga","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1028-2178"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39063666","display_name":"University of Catania","ror":"https://ror.org/03a64bh57","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gabriella Verga","raw_affiliation_strings":["Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1028-2178","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Dipartimento di Matematica e Informatica, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5011707033"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39063666"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.17752555,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"2","first_page":"77","last_page":"77"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11714","display_name":"Multimodal Machine Learning Applications","score":0.859000027179718,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11714","display_name":"Multimodal Machine Learning Applications","score":0.859000027179718,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.01730000041425228,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.016300000250339508,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/closed-captioning","display_name":"Closed captioning","score":0.8600000143051147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.5999000072479248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/precision-and-recall","display_name":"Precision and recall","score":0.5968999862670898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aerial-image","display_name":"Aerial image","score":0.5691999793052673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automation","display_name":"Automation","score":0.4878000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.4778999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/recall","display_name":"Recall","score":0.40470001101493835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/strengths-and-weaknesses","display_name":"Strengths and weaknesses","score":0.3691999912261963}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157657479","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2367247","display_name":"Closed captioning","level":3,"score":0.8600000143051147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8413000106811523},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6639999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5999000072479248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81669768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2359161","display_name":"Precision and recall","level":2,"score":0.5968999862670898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776429412","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4688011","display_name":"Aerial image","level":3,"score":0.5691999793052673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.505299985408783},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115901376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184199","display_name":"Automation","level":2,"score":0.4878000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4778999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100660578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18733","display_name":"Recall","level":2,"score":0.40470001101493835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63882131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17122954","display_name":"Strengths and weaknesses","level":2,"score":0.3691999912261963},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.3684999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.34529998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.311599999666214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166566181","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8065","display_name":"Natural disaster","level":2,"score":0.28200000524520874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.2816999852657318},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.2802000045776367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36464697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q451553","display_name":"Visualization","level":2,"score":0.27649998664855957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9417928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689","display_name":"Image processing","level":3,"score":0.2750000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.27300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.2646999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987098735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3808900","display_name":"Recall rate","level":2,"score":0.26350000500679016}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020077","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:2bf56df0cb8f4bd79ea7d95f3b559dd5","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/2bf56df0cb8f4bd79ea7d95f3b559dd5","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 18, Iss 2, p 77 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020077","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020077","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"have":[4,36],"shown":[5],"remarkable":[6,169],"results":[7,148],"when":[8],"tasked":[9,58],"with":[10,59],"the":[11,60,94,109,122,134,139],"analysis":[12],"and":[13,19,42,62,76,92,136,142,161,182,196,207],"production":[14],"of":[15,67,125,154],"texts":[16],"or":[17,101],"images":[18,24,28,66],"for":[20,96,189],"captioning":[21,63,137],"images.":[22],"Aerial":[23],"differ":[25],"from":[26],"other":[27],"since":[29],"they":[30],"exhibit":[31],"many":[32],"natural":[33,68],"objects":[34],"that":[35,170],"a":[37,98,115,127,151,179,191,198],"highly":[38],"variable":[39],"color":[40],"range":[41],"no":[43],"clear":[44],"contours.":[45],"This":[46,83],"paper":[47],"reports":[48],"to":[49,88,120,193],"what":[50],"extent":[51],"an":[52,102,171],"LLM,":[53],"i.e.,":[54],"Llama-4,":[55,155],"can":[56,174],"be":[57],"identification":[61,135],"in":[64,163,177],"aerial":[65,129],"objects,":[69,79],"such":[70,80,126,178,190],"as":[71,81,201],"tree":[72],"categories,":[73],"uncultivated":[74],"land,":[75],"some":[77],"man-made":[78],"roads.":[82],"valuable":[84],"automation":[85],"is":[86,105,168,187,203,209],"needed":[87,188],"scan":[89],"large":[90],"areas":[91],"detect":[93],"parts":[95],"which":[97],"sudden":[99],"maintenance":[100],"emergency":[103],"intervention":[104],"due.":[106],"Tests":[107],"on":[108],"chosen":[110],"LLM":[111],"were":[112,145],"performed":[113],"against":[114],"custom":[116],"image":[117,130],"dataset":[118],"built":[119],"overcome":[121],"limited":[123],"availability":[124],"domain-specific":[128],"set.":[131],"To":[132],"evaluate":[133],"results,":[138],"accuracy,":[140],"precision":[141],"recall":[143,208],"metrics":[144],"computed.":[146],"The":[147],"given":[149],"by":[150],"cutting-edge":[152],"variant":[153],"namely":[156],"Maverick,":[157],"reveal":[158],"its":[159],"strengths":[160],"weaknesses":[162],"this":[164],"context.":[165],"Although":[166],"it":[167],"out-of-the-box":[172],"tool":[173],"give":[175],"assistance":[176],"complex":[180],"observation":[181],"detection":[183],"task,":[184],"substantial":[185],"progress":[186],"model":[192],"improve":[194],"accuracy":[195,202],"constitute":[197],"reliable":[199],"support,":[200],"at":[204,210],"most":[205,211],"58.6%":[206],"56.1%.":[212]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2026-02-03T00:00:00"}