{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4406213428","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17010028","title":"Fake News Detection and Classification: A Comparative Study of Convolutional Neural Networks, Large Language Models, and Natural Language Processing Models","display_name":"Fake News Detection and Classification: A Comparative Study of Convolutional Neural Networks, Large Language Models, and Natural Language Processing Models","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4406213428","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17010028"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17010028","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17010028","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/1/28/pdf?version=1736434598","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/1/28/pdf?version=1736434598","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077820227","display_name":"Konstantinos I. Roumeliotis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8098-1616"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I158716096","display_name":"University of Peloponnese","ror":"https://ror.org/04d4d3c02","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I158716096"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Konstantinos I. Roumeliotis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of the Peloponnese, 22131 Tripoli, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8098-1616","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of the Peloponnese, 22131 Tripoli, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I158716096"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039512085","display_name":"Nikolaos D. Tselikas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5799-3558"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I158716096","display_name":"University of Peloponnese","ror":"https://ror.org/04d4d3c02","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I158716096"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Nikolaos D. Tselikas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of the Peloponnese, 22131 Tripoli, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5799-3558","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of the Peloponnese, 22131 Tripoli, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I158716096"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080101227","display_name":"Dimitrios \u039a. Nasiopoulos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7386-1029"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109954829","display_name":"Agricultural University of Athens","ror":"https://ror.org/03xawq568","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109954829"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dimitrios K. Nasiopoulos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Agribusiness and Supply Chain Management, School of Applied Economics and Social Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7386-1029","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Agribusiness and Supply Chain Management, School of Applied Economics and Social Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109954829"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5039512085","https://openalex.org/A5077820227"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I158716096"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":105.4225,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":30,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99974915,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"1","first_page":"28","last_page":"28"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11147","display_name":"Misinformation and Its Impacts","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11147","display_name":"Misinformation and Its Impacts","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.9298779964447021},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.7516360282897949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.629467248916626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.553220808506012},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language","display_name":"Natural language","score":0.4794672727584839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.43406766653060913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.4278642535209656}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.9298779964447021},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.7516360282897949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.629467248916626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.553220808506012},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.4794672727584839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.43406766653060913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4278642535209656}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17010028","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17010028","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/1/28/pdf?version=1736434598","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:gam:jftint:v:17:y:2025:i:1:p:28-:d:1563701","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/1/28/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:c2862eb7450e42418de521c75b0f1880","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/c2862eb7450e42418de521c75b0f1880","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 17, Iss 1, p 28 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17010028","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17010028","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/1/28/pdf?version=1736434598","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.5899999737739563,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4406213428.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4406213428.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":37,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2410465342","https://openalex.org/W2742330194","https://openalex.org/W2897365613","https://openalex.org/W2903981179","https://openalex.org/W2944575651","https://openalex.org/W2955779837","https://openalex.org/W2991596147","https://openalex.org/W2994071599","https://openalex.org/W3001895040","https://openalex.org/W3022435406","https://openalex.org/W3091738834","https://openalex.org/W3148001275","https://openalex.org/W4318821908","https://openalex.org/W4321791223","https://openalex.org/W4322627364","https://openalex.org/W4361804038","https://openalex.org/W4377115522","https://openalex.org/W4380607273","https://openalex.org/W4385299885","https://openalex.org/W4385692515","https://openalex.org/W4386369375","https://openalex.org/W4386997414","https://openalex.org/W4388673040","https://openalex.org/W4389352674","https://openalex.org/W4389724000","https://openalex.org/W4391687483","https://openalex.org/W4391777763","https://openalex.org/W4392173902","https://openalex.org/W4396908836","https://openalex.org/W4398235202","https://openalex.org/W4399365539","https://openalex.org/W4401413600","https://openalex.org/W4401974878","https://openalex.org/W4403493280","https://openalex.org/W6600135713","https://openalex.org/W6600424091","https://openalex.org/W6600601450"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391621807","https://openalex.org/W4321487865","https://openalex.org/W4313906399","https://openalex.org/W4391621790","https://openalex.org/W4239306820","https://openalex.org/W4391266461","https://openalex.org/W2590798552","https://openalex.org/W4226226396","https://openalex.org/W3153750606","https://openalex.org/W4308854837"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0,34],"an":[1],"era":[2],"where":[3,154],"fake":[4,61,150,179,200,234,239],"news":[5,62,151,201,209,235,240],"detection":[6],"has":[7],"become":[8],"a":[9,31],"pressing":[10],"issue":[11],"due":[12],"to":[13,69,77,117,141,212,222],"its":[14,118],"profound":[15],"impacts":[16],"on":[17],"public":[18],"opinion,":[19],"democracy,":[20],"and":[21,26,55,79,169,192,215,225,237],"social":[22],"trust,":[23],"accurately":[24],"identifying":[25],"classifying":[27],"false":[28],"information":[29],"is":[30,39,161],"critical":[32],"challenge.":[33],"this":[35,203,219],"study,":[36],"the":[37,70,84,91,110,122,133,143,186,194],"effectiveness":[38],"investigated":[40],"of":[41,124,135,189,196],"advanced":[42],"machine":[43],"learning":[44,198],"models\u2014convolutional":[45],"neural":[46],"networks":[47],"(CNNs),":[48],"bidirectional":[49],"encoder":[50],"representations":[51],"from":[52,72,181],"transformers":[53,58],"(BERT),":[54],"generative":[56],"pre-trained":[57],"(GPTs)\u2014for":[59],"robust":[60],"classification.":[63],"Each":[64],"model":[65,114],"brings":[66],"unique":[67],"strengths":[68],"task,":[71],"CNNs\u2019":[73],"pattern":[74],"recognition":[75],"capabilities":[76],"BERT":[78],"GPTs\u2019":[80],"contextual":[81,157],"understanding":[82],"in":[83,159,172,227],"embedding":[85],"space.":[86],"Our":[87],"results":[88],"demonstrate":[89],"that":[90],"fine-tuned":[92,190],"GPT-4":[93],"Omni":[94],"models":[95,102,126,139],"achieve":[96],"98.6%":[97],"accuracy,":[98],"significantly":[99],"outperforming":[100],"traditional":[101],"like":[103],"CNNs,":[104],"which":[105],"achieved":[106],"only":[107],"58.6%.":[108],"Notably,":[109],"smaller":[111,125],"GPT-4o":[112],"mini":[113],"performed":[115],"comparably":[116],"larger":[119],"counterpart,":[120],"highlighting":[121,185],"cost-effectiveness":[123],"for":[127,145,199,208,233],"specialized":[128],"tasks.":[129],"These":[130],"findings":[131],"emphasize":[132],"importance":[134],"fine-tuning":[136],"large":[137],"language":[138],"(LLMs)":[140],"optimize":[142],"performance":[144],"complex":[146],"tasks":[147],"such":[148,165],"as":[149,166],"classifier":[152,241],"development,":[153],"capturing":[155],"subtle":[156],"relationships":[158],"text":[160],"crucial.":[162],"However,":[163],"challenges":[164],"computational":[167],"costs":[168],"suboptimal":[170],"outcomes":[171],"zero-shot":[173],"classification":[174,236],"persist,":[175],"particularly":[176],"when":[177],"distinguishing":[178],"content":[180],"legitimate":[182],"information.":[183],"By":[184],"practical":[187],"application":[188],"LLMs":[191],"exploring":[193],"potential":[195],"few-shot":[197],"detection,":[202],"research":[204],"provides":[205],"valuable":[206],"insights":[207],"organizations":[210],"seeking":[211],"implement":[213],"scalable":[214],"accurate":[216],"solutions.":[217],"Ultimately,":[218],"work":[220],"contributes":[221],"fostering":[223],"transparency":[224],"integrity":[226],"journalism":[228],"through":[229],"innovative":[230],"AI-driven":[231],"methods":[232],"automated":[238],"systems.":[242]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":25}],"updated_date":"2026-05-10T08:33:47.465468","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
