{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4412592893","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18080457","title":"A Novel Wavelet Transform and Deep Learning-Based Algorithm for Low-Latency Internet Traffic Classification","display_name":"A Novel Wavelet Transform and Deep Learning-Based Algorithm for Low-Latency Internet Traffic Classification","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-07-23","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4412592893","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18080457"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18080457","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18080457","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/8/457/pdf?version=1753263955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/8/457/pdf?version=1753263955","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092511469","display_name":"Ramazan Enisoglu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165862685","display_name":"St George's, University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/040f08y74","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I165862685"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ramazan Enisoglu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George\u2019s, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George's, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George\u2019s, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165862685"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George's, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073777064","display_name":"Veselin Rako\u010devi\u0107","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3081-0448"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165862685","display_name":"St George's, University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/040f08y74","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I165862685"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Veselin Rakocevic","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George\u2019s, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George's, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George\u2019s, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165862685"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Engineering, School of Science & Technology, City St George's, University of London, London E1 4NS, UK","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5073777064","https://openalex.org/A5092511469"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165862685"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.09752669,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"8","first_page":"457","last_page":"457"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10388","display_name":"Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques","score":0.996399998664856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7343549132347107},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/low-latency","display_name":"Low latency (capital markets)","score":0.5774301886558533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/the-internet","display_name":"The Internet","score":0.5512774586677551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5464644432067871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.4973900616168976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wavelet-transform","display_name":"Wavelet transform","score":0.45118221640586853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.4441482424736023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wavelet","display_name":"Wavelet","score":0.4392681121826172},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/internet-traffic","display_name":"Internet traffic","score":0.43564146757125854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latency","display_name":"Latency (audio)","score":0.4156695306301117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.3624454438686371},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3516312837600708},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.20736923813819885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.1337483525276184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/world-wide-web","display_name":"World Wide Web","score":0.11501327157020569}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7343549132347107},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46637626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6693015","display_name":"Low latency (capital markets)","level":2,"score":0.5774301886558533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.5512774586677551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5464644432067871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.4973900616168976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196216189","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2867","display_name":"Wavelet transform","level":3,"score":0.45118221640586853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.4441482424736023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47432892","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831390","display_name":"Wavelet","level":2,"score":0.4392681121826172},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63969886","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3536440","display_name":"Internet traffic","level":3,"score":0.43564146757125854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82876162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17096504","display_name":"Latency (audio)","level":2,"score":0.4156695306301117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3624454438686371},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3516312837600708},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.20736923813819885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.1337483525276184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.11501327157020569}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18080457","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18080457","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/8/457/pdf?version=1753263955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:openaccess.city.ac.uk:36205","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/view/creators_id/veselin=2Erakocevic=2E1.html>","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401940","display_name":"City Research Online (City University London)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I180825142","host_organization_name":"City, University of London","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180825142"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"PeerReviewed"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:b924e35c465243109c92be2e81ec19ec","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/b924e35c465243109c92be2e81ec19ec","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms, Vol 18, Iss 8, p 457 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18080457","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18080457","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/8/457/pdf?version=1753263955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4412592893.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4412592893.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":52,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W68246004","https://openalex.org/W1957358593","https://openalex.org/W1982728146","https://openalex.org/W2018002563","https://openalex.org/W2062401262","https://openalex.org/W2092505457","https://openalex.org/W2096118443","https://openalex.org/W2112479936","https://openalex.org/W2127590189","https://openalex.org/W2138790696","https://openalex.org/W2149396966","https://openalex.org/W2157013783","https://openalex.org/W2157349061","https://openalex.org/W2343828539","https://openalex.org/W2345125553","https://openalex.org/W2529496964","https://openalex.org/W2573116950","https://openalex.org/W2591712613","https://openalex.org/W2592840293","https://openalex.org/W2625574821","https://openalex.org/W2743678626","https://openalex.org/W2773858400","https://openalex.org/W2785889759","https://openalex.org/W2906364736","https://openalex.org/W2945316337","https://openalex.org/W2951066409","https://openalex.org/W2963516518","https://openalex.org/W2976836186","https://openalex.org/W2979040987","https://openalex.org/W2996639726","https://openalex.org/W2996741729","https://openalex.org/W3011161512","https://openalex.org/W3036573907","https://openalex.org/W3040899439","https://openalex.org/W3044603458","https://openalex.org/W3046729900","https://openalex.org/W3105064070","https://openalex.org/W3105108969","https://openalex.org/W3129800954","https://openalex.org/W3144327190","https://openalex.org/W3178000608","https://openalex.org/W3180765189","https://openalex.org/W4206499184","https://openalex.org/W4210991982","https://openalex.org/W4283766161","https://openalex.org/W4384946034","https://openalex.org/W4385562468","https://openalex.org/W4388761870","https://openalex.org/W6763034544","https://openalex.org/W6771848832","https://openalex.org/W6771891785","https://openalex.org/W6780937169"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2382174632","https://openalex.org/W2129959498","https://openalex.org/W2077021924","https://openalex.org/W3205411230","https://openalex.org/W4286899009","https://openalex.org/W9168048","https://openalex.org/W4300849822","https://openalex.org/W4376480820","https://openalex.org/W3155891479","https://openalex.org/W3029351463"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Accurate":[0],"and":[1,20,74,99,152,178,183,199,231,240],"real-time":[2,53],"classification":[3],"of":[4,255],"low-latency":[5,33,113,153,171],"Internet":[6,242],"traffic":[7,34,163,172,222],"is":[8],"critical":[9],"for":[10,32,202,219],"applications":[11],"such":[12],"as":[13,95],"video":[14,150,174],"conferencing,":[15],"online":[16],"gaming,":[17],"financial":[18],"trading,":[19],"autonomous":[21],"systems,":[22],"where":[23],"millisecond-level":[24],"delays":[25],"can":[26],"degrade":[27],"user":[28],"experience.":[29],"Existing":[30],"methods":[31],"classification,":[35],"reliant":[36],"on":[37,145,190],"raw":[38],"temporal":[39,93],"features":[40,130],"or":[41],"static":[42],"statistical":[43],"analyses,":[44],"fail":[45],"to":[46,52,79,90,116,160,245],"capture":[47],"dynamic":[48],"frequency":[49],"patterns":[50,111],"inherent":[51],"applications.":[54],"These":[55,128],"limitations":[56],"hinder":[57],"accurate":[58],"resource":[59],"allocation":[60,239],"in":[61,112,119,169,257],"heterogeneous":[62,258],"networks.":[63],"This":[64,106],"paper":[65],"proposes":[66],"a":[67,132,146,197,216],"novel":[68],"framework":[69],"integrating":[70],"wavelet":[71],"transform":[72],"(WT)":[73],"artificial":[75],"neural":[76],"networks":[77],"(ANNs)":[78],"address":[80],"this":[81,234],"gap.":[82],"Unlike":[83],"prior":[84],"works,":[85],"we":[86],"systematically":[87],"apply":[88],"WT":[89],"commonly":[91],"used":[92],"features\u2014such":[94],"throughput,":[96],"slope,":[97],"ratio,":[98],"moving":[100],"averages\u2014transforming":[101],"them":[102],"into":[103],"frequency-domain":[104],"representations.":[105],"approach":[107,144],"reveals":[108],"hidden":[109],"multi-scale":[110],"traffic,":[114,154],"akin":[115],"structured":[117],"noise":[118],"signal":[120,229],"processing,":[121],"which":[122],"traditional":[123],"time-domain":[124],"analyses":[125],"often":[126],"overlook.":[127],"wavelet-enhanced":[129],"train":[131],"multilayer":[133],"perceptron":[134],"(MLP)":[135],"ANN,":[136],"enabling":[137],"dual-domain":[138],"(time\u2013frequency)":[139],"analysis.":[140],"We":[141],"evaluate":[142],"our":[143,186],"dataset":[147],"comprising":[148],"FTP,":[149],"streaming,":[151,179],"including":[155],"mixed":[156],"scenarios":[157],"with":[158],"up":[159],"four":[161],"concurrent":[162],"types.":[164],"Experiments":[165],"demonstrate":[166],"99.56%":[167],"accuracy":[168],"distinguishing":[170],"(e.g.,":[173],"conferencing)":[175],"from":[176],"FTP":[177],"outperforming":[180],"k-NN,":[181],"CNNs,":[182],"LSTMs.":[184],"Notably,":[185],"method":[187],"eliminates":[188],"reliance":[189],"deep":[191,224,232,250],"packet":[192,225,251],"inspection":[193],"(DPI),":[194],"offering":[195,214],"ISPs":[196,215],"privacy-preserving":[198],"scalable":[200,217],"solution":[201,218],"prioritizing":[203,220],"time-sensitive":[204,221,247],"traffic.":[205],"In":[206],"mixed-traffic":[207],"scenarios,":[208],"the":[209],"model":[210],"achieves":[211],"74.2\u201392.8%":[212],"accuracy,":[213],"without":[223,249],"inspection.":[226],"By":[227],"bridging":[228],"processing":[230],"learning,":[233],"work":[235],"advances":[236],"efficient":[237],"bandwidth":[238],"enables":[241],"Service":[243],"Providers":[244],"prioritize":[246],"flows":[248],"inspection,":[252],"improving":[253],"quality":[254],"service":[256],"network":[259],"environments.":[260]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-02-27T16:54:17.756197","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}