{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4411025992","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060874","title":"A Stacked Machine Learning-Based Intrusion Detection System for Internal and External Networks in Smart Connected Vehicles","display_name":"A Stacked Machine Learning-Based Intrusion Detection System for Internal and External Networks in Smart Connected Vehicles","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-06-04","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4411025992","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060874"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17060874","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060874","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/6/874/pdf?version=1749027018","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/6/874/pdf?version=1749027018","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054691502","display_name":"Xinlei Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2541-0391"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1793135","display_name":"Yanbian University","ror":"https://ror.org/039xnh269","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xinlei Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5074734811","display_name":"Yujing Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-0866"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1793135","display_name":"Yanbian University","ror":"https://ror.org/039xnh269","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yujing Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9339-0866","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103140950","display_name":"Junhao Lin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8657-3659"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1793135","display_name":"Yanbian University","ror":"https://ror.org/039xnh269","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junhao Lin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027174123","display_name":"Yinan Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-644X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1793135","display_name":"Yanbian University","ror":"https://ror.org/039xnh269","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yinan Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-644X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic & Communication Engineering, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052419128","display_name":"Samuel Woo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8991-0817"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I89015989","display_name":"Dankook University","ror":"https://ror.org/058pdbn81","country_code":"KR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I89015989"]}],"countries":["KR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Samuel Woo","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Software Science, Dankook University, Jukjeon 16890, Republic of Korea"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Software Science, Dankook University, Jukjeon 16890, Republic of Korea","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I89015989"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5074734811"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1793135"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"fwci":1.2772,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.7874586,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"6","first_page":"874","last_page":"874"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.689551055431366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intrusion-detection-system","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","score":0.6279710531234741},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4108022153377533}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.689551055431366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.6279710531234741},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4108022153377533}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17060874","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060874","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/6/874/pdf?version=1749027018","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17060874","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060874","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/6/874/pdf?version=1749027018","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6666762259","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62201492","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6766171353","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62161049","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7236403819","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"YDZJ202301ZYTS409","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310121","funder_display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jilin Province"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8547383927","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"YDZJ202501ZYTS641","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310121","funder_display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jilin Province"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310121","display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jilin Province","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322174","display_name":"People's Government of Jilin Province","ror":"https://ror.org/02fzqav45"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411025992.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411025992.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":60,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1517808374","https://openalex.org/W2051327398","https://openalex.org/W2469823050","https://openalex.org/W2592742990","https://openalex.org/W2604808181","https://openalex.org/W2799548584","https://openalex.org/W2925076195","https://openalex.org/W2925113551","https://openalex.org/W2945434604","https://openalex.org/W2953901595","https://openalex.org/W2955657939","https://openalex.org/W2979202956","https://openalex.org/W2989230094","https://openalex.org/W2992137023","https://openalex.org/W2994164984","https://openalex.org/W2998678080","https://openalex.org/W2999241451","https://openalex.org/W3000145208","https://openalex.org/W3013049377","https://openalex.org/W3014420955","https://openalex.org/W3035462921","https://openalex.org/W3048558310","https://openalex.org/W3048804154","https://openalex.org/W3082815818","https://openalex.org/W3091724539","https://openalex.org/W3094375777","https://openalex.org/W3106212564","https://openalex.org/W3120973779","https://openalex.org/W3129544654","https://openalex.org/W3134008902","https://openalex.org/W3152992781","https://openalex.org/W3162979233","https://openalex.org/W3164321464","https://openalex.org/W3170348203","https://openalex.org/W3173906426","https://openalex.org/W3193949656","https://openalex.org/W4200494353","https://openalex.org/W4206529651","https://openalex.org/W4210960727","https://openalex.org/W4225556940","https://openalex.org/W4229001986","https://openalex.org/W4280567385","https://openalex.org/W4283209159","https://openalex.org/W4285181401","https://openalex.org/W4293731341","https://openalex.org/W4296200674","https://openalex.org/W4297957988","https://openalex.org/W4318149071","https://openalex.org/W4320004351","https://openalex.org/W4361297517","https://openalex.org/W4385687876","https://openalex.org/W4386065456","https://openalex.org/W4386280834","https://openalex.org/W4390187511","https://openalex.org/W4394785231","https://openalex.org/W4403387958","https://openalex.org/W6734535472","https://openalex.org/W6765211110","https://openalex.org/W6769154321","https://openalex.org/W6807027748"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W4391913857","https://openalex.org/W2358668433","https://openalex.org/W4396701345","https://openalex.org/W2376932109","https://openalex.org/W2001405890","https://openalex.org/W4396696052"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"response":[1],"to":[2,62,189],"the":[3,29,42,50,64,87,146,181],"escalating":[4],"threat":[5],"of":[6,45,94,154,171],"cyberattacks":[7],"on":[8],"smart":[9],"connected":[10],"vehicles,":[11],"numerous":[12],"Intrusion":[13],"Detection":[14],"Systems":[15],"(IDSs)":[16],"have":[17],"emerged.":[18],"However,":[19],"existing":[20],"IDSs":[21],"often":[22],"prioritize":[23],"enhancing":[24],"detection":[25,152,169],"accuracy":[26,153],"while":[27],"overlooking":[28],"time":[30],"needed":[31],"for":[32,156,163],"training":[33,131],"and":[34,49,67,90,98,110,120,130,138,161,174,187],"detection.":[35],"Moreover,":[36],"they":[37],"may":[38],"not":[39],"fully":[40],"leverage":[41],"combined":[43],"utilization":[44],"CAN":[46,88,158],"bus":[47,89,159],"IDs":[48],"data":[51],"field":[52],"with":[53,125,167],"external":[54,99,111,164],"network":[55,101,112,165],"data.":[56],"Consequently,":[57],"these":[58,77],"systems":[59],"frequently":[60],"struggle":[61],"meet":[63],"real-time":[65,183],"demands":[66],"broader":[68],"attack":[69,191],"scenarios":[70],"inherent":[71],"in":[72],"in-vehicle":[73,109],"systems.":[74],"To":[75],"overcome":[76],"challenges,":[78],"we":[79],"propose":[80],"a":[81,126],"stacked-model":[82],"IDS":[83,148],"architecture":[84],"deployed":[85],"across":[86],"central":[91],"gateway,":[92],"capable":[93],"detecting":[95],"both":[96],"internal":[97,157],"vehicular":[100],"attacks.":[102],"The":[103],"system":[104],"extracts":[105],"key":[106],"features":[107],"from":[108],"data,":[113],"builds":[114],"base":[115],"learners":[116],"(CART,":[117],"LightGBM,":[118],"XGBoost),":[119],"integrates":[121],"them":[122],"through":[123],"stacking":[124],"meta-learner.":[127],"Feature":[128],"selection":[129],"efficiency":[132],"are":[133],"enhanced":[134],"using":[135],"information":[136,140],"gain":[137],"maximal":[139],"coefficient":[141],"algorithms.":[142],"Experiments":[143],"show":[144],"that":[145],"proposed":[147],"achieves":[149],"an":[150],"average":[151],"99.99%":[155],"attacks":[160],"99.81%":[162],"attacks,":[166],"fast":[168],"times":[170],"0.018":[172],"ms":[173],"0.088":[175],"ms,":[176],"respectively.":[177],"These":[178],"results":[179],"highlight":[180],"system\u2019s":[182],"capability,":[184],"high":[185],"accuracy,":[186],"adaptability":[188],"complex":[190],"scenarios.":[192]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}