{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4406843303","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185","title":"Machine Learning-Based Stacking Ensemble Model for Prediction of Heart Disease with Explainable AI and K-Fold Cross-Validation: A Symmetric Approach","display_name":"Machine Learning-Based Stacking Ensemble Model for Prediction of Heart Disease with Explainable AI and K-Fold Cross-Validation: A Symmetric Approach","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4406843303","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17020185","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/2/185/pdf?version=1737791023","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/2/185/pdf?version=1737791023","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112339086","display_name":"Shamsuddin Sultan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16076960","display_name":"COMSATS University Islamabad","ror":"https://ror.org/00nqqvk19","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16076960"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sara Qamar Sultan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mathematics, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mathematics, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16076960"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055380996","display_name":"Nadeem Javaid","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3777-8249"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I75357094","display_name":"National Yunlin University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04qkq2m54","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I75357094"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Nadeem Javaid","raw_affiliation_strings":["ComSens Lab, International Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliou 64002, Taiwan"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"ComSens Lab, International Graduate School of Artificial Intelligence, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliou 64002, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I75357094"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089697598","display_name":"Nabil Alrajeh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1861-0582"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28022161","display_name":"King Saud University","ror":"https://ror.org/02f81g417","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28022161"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nabil Alrajeh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biomedical Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11633, Saudi Arabia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biomedical Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11633, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28022161"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090095675","display_name":"Muhammad Aslam","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9697-6766"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16038530","display_name":"Aberystwyth University","ror":"https://ror.org/015m2p889","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16038530"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Aslam","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3FL, UK"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3FL, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16038530"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5055380996"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I75357094"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2165},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2165},"fwci":27.3438,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99297664,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"2","first_page":"185","last_page":"185"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11396","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare","score":0.989799976348877,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3605","display_name":"Health Information Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11396","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare","score":0.989799976348877,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3605","display_name":"Health Information Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13702","display_name":"Machine Learning in Healthcare","score":0.953499972820282,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fold","display_name":"Fold (higher-order function)","score":0.7497806549072266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cross-validation","display_name":"Cross-validation","score":0.6953542232513428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stacking","display_name":"Stacking","score":0.5851370096206665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5684143900871277},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-learning","display_name":"Ensemble learning","score":0.5031747221946716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.40198880434036255},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chemistry","display_name":"Chemistry","score":0.21829810738563538}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C53942344","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q951651","display_name":"Fold (higher-order function)","level":2,"score":0.7497806549072266},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27181475","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q541014","display_name":"Cross-validation","level":2,"score":0.6953542232513428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33347731","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q285210","display_name":"Stacking","level":2,"score":0.5851370096206665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5684143900871277},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45942800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652","display_name":"Ensemble learning","level":2,"score":0.5031747221946716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.40198880434036255},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.21829810738563538},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178790620","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11351","display_name":"Organic chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17020185","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/2/185/pdf?version=1737791023","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2073-8994/17/2/185/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Pages: 185","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/sym17020185","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17020185","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-8994/17/2/185/pdf?version=1737791023","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190787756","display_name":"Symmetry","issn_l":"2073-8994","issn":["2073-8994"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Symmetry","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2067539974","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"RSPD2025R648","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321145","funder_display_name":"King Saud University"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8239988234","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Riyadh","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321145","funder_display_name":"King Saud University"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321145","display_name":"King Saud University","ror":"https://ror.org/02f81g417"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4406843303.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4406843303.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W3121644786","https://openalex.org/W3126720980","https://openalex.org/W3165801113","https://openalex.org/W3185516026","https://openalex.org/W3208381609","https://openalex.org/W4220986642","https://openalex.org/W4285821496","https://openalex.org/W4310238582","https://openalex.org/W4312198369","https://openalex.org/W4313334823","https://openalex.org/W4321369284","https://openalex.org/W4322753946","https://openalex.org/W4365517060","https://openalex.org/W4376602921","https://openalex.org/W4380358573","https://openalex.org/W4386812592","https://openalex.org/W4387242311","https://openalex.org/W4387924064","https://openalex.org/W4389204530","https://openalex.org/W4390426688","https://openalex.org/W4390918243","https://openalex.org/W4391169031","https://openalex.org/W4391523108","https://openalex.org/W4392823861","https://openalex.org/W4400315028","https://openalex.org/W6803187151","https://openalex.org/W6860108411","https://openalex.org/W6877912216","https://openalex.org/W6887735948"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2035329725","https://openalex.org/W2070875936","https://openalex.org/W4250391473","https://openalex.org/W4302292679","https://openalex.org/W1181095405","https://openalex.org/W4241625287","https://openalex.org/W2050788868","https://openalex.org/W4295885776","https://openalex.org/W2027634686","https://openalex.org/W2293349767"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"One":[0],"of":[1,18,37,76,84,151,179,211,224,235],"the":[2,15,21,28,38,73,77,82,119,137,149,167,170,175,186,204,217],"most":[3],"complex":[4],"and":[5,27,54,79,108,143,159,165,222,228,231,259],"prevalent":[6],"diseases":[7],"is":[8,13,32,44,252],"heart":[9],"disease":[10,39,78],"(HD).":[11],"It":[12,251],"among":[14],"main":[16],"causes":[17],"death":[19],"around":[20],"globe.":[22],"With":[23],"changes":[24],"in":[25,40,48,63],"lifestyles":[26],"environment,":[29],"its":[30,41],"prevalence":[31],"rising":[33],"rapidly.":[34],"The":[35,192,208],"prediction":[36,257],"early":[42],"stages":[43],"crucial,":[45],"as":[46,111,118],"delays":[47],"diagnosis":[49],"can":[50,60],"cause":[51],"serious":[52],"complications":[53],"even":[55],"death.":[56],"Machine":[57],"learning":[58],"(ML)":[59],"be":[61,272],"effective":[62],"this":[64],"regard.":[65],"Many":[66],"researchers":[67],"have":[68,90,240],"used":[69],"different":[70],"techniques":[71,146],"for":[72],"efficient":[74],"detection":[75],"to":[80,129,147,246,271],"overcome":[81],"drawbacks":[83],"existing":[85,206],"models.":[86],"Several":[87],"ensemble":[88,98],"models":[89],"also":[91,241],"been":[92],"applied.":[93],"We":[94,122,135],"proposed":[95,171,181,213],"a":[96,126],"stacking":[97,172,198,214],"model":[99,215],"named":[100],"NCDG,":[101,200],"which":[102,267],"uses":[103],"Naive":[104],"Bayes,":[105],"Categorical":[106],"Boosting,":[107],"Decision":[109],"Tree":[110],"base":[112],"learners,":[113],"with":[114,169,264],"Gradient":[115],"Boosting":[116],"serving":[117],"meta-learner":[120],"classifier.":[121],"performed":[123],"preprocessing":[124],"using":[125,162],"factorization":[127],"method":[128,245],"convert":[130],"string":[131],"columns":[132],"into":[133],"integers.":[134],"employ":[136],"Synthetic":[138],"Minority":[139],"Oversampling":[140],"TEchnique":[141],"(SMOTE)":[142],"BorderLineSMOTE":[144],"balancing":[145],"address":[148],"issue":[150],"data":[152],"class":[153],"imbalance.":[154],"Additionally,":[155],"we":[156,184,239],"implemented":[157],"hard":[158],"soft":[160],"voting":[161,163],"classifier":[164],"compared":[166],"results":[168,210,258],"model.":[173],"For":[174],"Artificial":[176],"Intelligence-based":[177],"eXplainability":[178],"our":[180,196,212,248,256,269],"NCDG":[182],"model,":[183,199],"use":[185],"SHapley":[187],"Additive":[188],"exPlanations":[189],"(SHAP)":[190],"technique.":[191],"outcomes":[193],"show":[194],"that":[195,255],"suggested":[197],"performs":[201],"better":[202],"than":[203],"benchmark":[205],"techniques.":[207],"experimental":[209],"achieved":[216],"highest":[218],"accuracy,":[219],"F1-Score,":[220],"precision":[221],"recall":[223],"0.91,":[225,226,229],"0.91":[227],"respectively,":[230],"an":[232],"execution":[233],"time":[234],"653":[236],"s.":[237],"Moreover,":[238],"utilized":[242],"K-Fold":[243],"Cross-Validation":[244],"validate":[247],"predicted":[249],"results.":[250],"worth":[253],"mentioning":[254],"their":[260],"validation":[261],"strongly":[262],"coincide":[263],"each":[265],"other":[266],"proves":[268],"approach":[270],"symmetric.":[273]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":9}],"updated_date":"2026-04-11T08:14:18.477133","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
