{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4402990596","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196294","title":"A Transformer-Based Approach to Leakage Detection in Water Distribution Networks","display_name":"A Transformer-Based Approach to Leakage Detection in Water Distribution Networks","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-09-28","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4402990596","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196294","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39409334"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24196294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/19/6294/pdf?version=1727538047","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/19/6294/pdf?version=1727538047","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100852778","display_name":"Juan Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6097-1559"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16609230","display_name":"Hunan University","ror":"https://ror.org/05htk5m33","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16609230"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Juan Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6097-1559","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16609230"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016166801","display_name":"C. C. Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I115228651","display_name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research","ror":"https://ror.org/036wvzt09","country_code":"SG","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I115228651"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3004594783","display_name":"Institute of High Performance Computing","ror":"https://ror.org/02n0ejh50","country_code":"SG","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I115228651","https://openalex.org/I3004594783","https://openalex.org/I91275662"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chongxiao Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of High Performance Computing, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore 138632, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of High Performance Computing, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore 138632, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3004594783","https://openalex.org/I115228651"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018463611","display_name":"Jielong Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5853-6316"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111599522","display_name":"Jiangnan University","ror":"https://ror.org/04mkzax54","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111599522"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jielong Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Internet of Things Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Internet of Things Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111599522"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100681425","display_name":"Xionghu Zhong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7533-2347"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16609230","display_name":"Hunan University","ror":"https://ror.org/05htk5m33","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16609230"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Xionghu Zhong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16609230"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100681425","https://openalex.org/A5100852778"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16609230"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":1.4698,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.80096745,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"19","first_page":"6294","last_page":"6294"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11220","display_name":"Water Systems and Optimization","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11220","display_name":"Water Systems and Optimization","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11512","display_name":"Anomaly Detection Techniques and Applications","score":0.9934999942779541,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10511","display_name":"High voltage insulation and dielectric phenomena","score":0.9803000092506409,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformer","display_name":"Transformer","score":0.7055782079696655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/normalization","display_name":"Normalization (sociology)","score":0.6372512578964233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5839171409606934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.5655398368835449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5485301613807678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.44571471214294434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.4278939366340637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.41547220945358276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3965427577495575},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.3415895700454712},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/voltage","display_name":"Voltage","score":0.3047516644001007},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.27322790026664734},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electrical-engineering","display_name":"Electrical engineering","score":0.0928695797920227}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.7055782079696655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136886441","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q926129","display_name":"Normalization (sociology)","level":2,"score":0.6372512578964233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5839171409606934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.5655398368835449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5485301613807678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.44571471214294434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4278939366340637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.41547220945358276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3965427577495575},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3415895700454712},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.3047516644001007},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.27322790026664734},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0928695797920227},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19165224","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23404","display_name":"Anthropology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24196294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/19/6294/pdf?version=1727538047","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:39409334","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39409334","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:11478714","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/11478714","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11478714/pdf/sensors-24-06294.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:63ec9da4b152413f849801f62539582f","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/63ec9da4b152413f849801f62539582f","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 19, p 6294 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24196294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24196294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/19/6294/pdf?version=1727538047","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Clean water and sanitation","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/6","score":0.5899999737739563}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3967457896","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61971186","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4402990596.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4402990596.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1780272748","https://openalex.org/W1875842236","https://openalex.org/W1972301087","https://openalex.org/W1975986755","https://openalex.org/W1991429615","https://openalex.org/W2052306804","https://openalex.org/W2070096548","https://openalex.org/W2089809176","https://openalex.org/W2119404840","https://openalex.org/W2153674738","https://openalex.org/W2326462684","https://openalex.org/W2346571297","https://openalex.org/W2507232942","https://openalex.org/W2605861167","https://openalex.org/W2626178882","https://openalex.org/W2767035496","https://openalex.org/W2903940442","https://openalex.org/W2919550293","https://openalex.org/W2922005827","https://openalex.org/W2970351942","https://openalex.org/W2972251224","https://openalex.org/W2981857663","https://openalex.org/W3094152157","https://openalex.org/W3128744684","https://openalex.org/W3164631497","https://openalex.org/W3165792802","https://openalex.org/W3191794496","https://openalex.org/W3194293177","https://openalex.org/W3210091028","https://openalex.org/W3213253658","https://openalex.org/W4280494158","https://openalex.org/W4291130014","https://openalex.org/W4293152929","https://openalex.org/W4296558544","https://openalex.org/W4306407839","https://openalex.org/W4313163875","https://openalex.org/W4313558932","https://openalex.org/W4323306150","https://openalex.org/W4372260538"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2591697403","https://openalex.org/W2944728705","https://openalex.org/W2904022177","https://openalex.org/W2359348847","https://openalex.org/W4226493464","https://openalex.org/W4312417841","https://openalex.org/W3133861977","https://openalex.org/W2951211570","https://openalex.org/W3103566983","https://openalex.org/W3029198973"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,73,132,146],"efficient":[1],"detection":[2,142],"of":[3,134],"leakages":[4,70],"in":[5,57,71,104,124],"water":[6,15],"distribution":[7],"networks":[8],"(WDNs)":[9],"is":[10,138],"crucial":[11],"to":[12,53,79,128],"ensuring":[13],"municipal":[14],"supply":[16],"safety":[17],"and":[18,32,50,83,91,117,144],"improving":[19],"urban":[20],"operations.":[21],"Traditionally,":[22],"machine":[23],"learning":[24],"methods":[25,43],"such":[26],"as":[27],"Convolutional":[28],"Neural":[29],"Networks":[30],"(CNNs)":[31],"Autoencoders":[33],"(AEs)":[34],"have":[35],"been":[36],"used":[37],"for":[38,68,85],"leakage":[39,115],"detection.":[40],"However,":[41],"these":[42],"heavily":[44],"rely":[45],"on":[46,97,150],"local":[47],"pressure":[48,58,89,105,110,122,152],"information":[49],"often":[51],"fail":[52],"capture":[54],"long-term":[55,102],"dependencies":[56,103],"series.":[59,106],"In":[60],"this":[61],"paper,":[62],"we":[63,108],"propose":[64],"a":[65],"transformer-based":[66,161],"model":[67,127,162],"detecting":[69],"WDNs.":[72],"transformer":[74,126],"incorporates":[75],"an":[76],"attention":[77],"mechanism":[78],"learn":[80],"data":[81,90,92,111,123],"distributions":[82],"account":[84],"correlations":[86],"between":[87],"historical":[88],"from":[93,154],"the":[94,125,135,160],"same":[95],"time":[96],"different":[98,156],"days,":[99],"thereby":[100],"emphasizing":[101],"Additionally,":[107],"apply":[109],"normalization":[112],"across":[113],"each":[114],"scenario":[116],"concatenate":[118],"position":[119],"embeddings":[120],"with":[121],"avoid":[129],"feature":[130],"misleading.":[131],"performance":[133],"proposed":[136],"method":[137],"evaluated":[139],"by":[140],"using":[141],"accuracy":[143],"F1-score.":[145],"experimental":[147],"studies":[148],"conducted":[149],"simulated":[151],"datasets":[153],"three":[155],"WDNs":[157],"demonstrate":[158],"that":[159],"significantly":[163],"outperforms":[164],"traditional":[165],"CNN":[166],"methods.":[167]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
