{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4401618545","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165275","title":"High-Throughput and Accurate 3D Scanning of Cattle Using Time-of-Flight Sensors and Deep Learning","display_name":"High-Throughput and Accurate 3D Scanning of Cattle Using Time-of-Flight Sensors and Deep Learning","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-08-14","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4401618545","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165275","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39204969"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24165275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/16/5275/pdf?version=1723651196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/16/5275/pdf?version=1723651196","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037411989","display_name":"Gbenga Omotara","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76835614","display_name":"University of Missouri","ror":"https://ror.org/02ymw8z06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gbenga Omotara","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003420041","display_name":"Seyed Mohamad Ali Tousi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0193-7391"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76835614","display_name":"University of Missouri","ror":"https://ror.org/02ymw8z06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seyed Mohamad Ali Tousi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0193-7391","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037641358","display_name":"Jared E. Decker","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5685-7343"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76835614","display_name":"University of Missouri","ror":"https://ror.org/02ymw8z06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jared Decker","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5685-7343","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012898109","display_name":"D. W. Brake","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5564-8301"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76835614","display_name":"University of Missouri","ror":"https://ror.org/02ymw8z06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Derek Brake","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5564-8301","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089043471","display_name":"Guilherme N. DeSouza","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2138-5512"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76835614","display_name":"University of Missouri","ror":"https://ror.org/02ymw8z06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"G. N. DeSouza","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vision-Guided and Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5089043471"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76835614"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"fwci":4.2272,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9382275,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"16","first_page":"5275","last_page":"5275"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12153","display_name":"Advanced Optical Sensing Technologies","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11211","display_name":"3D Surveying and Cultural Heritage","score":0.9944000244140625,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1907","display_name":"Geology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/point-cloud","display_name":"Point cloud","score":0.8566974401473999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scanner","display_name":"Scanner","score":0.7325905561447144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.666337788105011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6399081349372864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/throughput","display_name":"Throughput","score":0.5683447122573853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/volume","display_name":"Volume (thermodynamics)","score":0.5262253284454346},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5226114392280579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/segmentation","display_name":"Segmentation","score":0.5155644416809082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/3d-scanning","display_name":"3d scanning","score":0.4740433692932129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.471030056476593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/laser-scanning","display_name":"Laser scanning","score":0.457193523645401},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rgb-color-model","display_name":"RGB color model","score":0.4523336887359619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optics","display_name":"Optics","score":0.11641144752502441}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131979681","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1899648","display_name":"Point cloud","level":2,"score":0.8566974401473999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779751349","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1474480","display_name":"Scanner","level":2,"score":0.7325905561447144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.666337788105011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6399081349372864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157764524","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1383412","display_name":"Throughput","level":3,"score":0.5683447122573853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20556612","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4469374","display_name":"Volume (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.5262253284454346},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5226114392280579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89600930","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423946","display_name":"Segmentation","level":2,"score":0.5155644416809082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3019493240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q94701573","display_name":"3d scanning","level":2,"score":0.4740433692932129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.471030056476593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C141349535","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1361664","display_name":"Laser scanning","level":3,"score":0.457193523645401},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82990744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166194","display_name":"RGB color model","level":2,"score":0.4523336887359619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.11641144752502441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C520434653","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38867","display_name":"Laser","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000818","descriptor_name":"Animals","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000818","descriptor_name":"Animals","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000818","descriptor_name":"Animals","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000818","descriptor_name":"Animals","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002417","descriptor_name":"Cattle","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002417","descriptor_name":"Cattle","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002417","descriptor_name":"Cattle","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002417","descriptor_name":"Cattle","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D021621","descriptor_name":"Imaging, Three-Dimensional","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D021621","descriptor_name":"Imaging, Three-Dimensional","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D021621","descriptor_name":"Imaging, Three-Dimensional","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D021621","descriptor_name":"Imaging, Three-Dimensional","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24165275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/16/5275/pdf?version=1723651196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:39204969","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39204969","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:11359121","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/11359121","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11359121/pdf/sensors-24-05275.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:ac0cbf5d38424952980f3652b2210475","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/ac0cbf5d38424952980f3652b2210475","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 16, p 5275 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24165275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/16/5275/pdf?version=1723651196","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5620962805","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"67021","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332299","funder_display_name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306114","display_name":"U.S. Department of Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/01na82s61"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332299","display_name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/05qx3fv49"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401618545.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401618545.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":25,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1665214252","https://openalex.org/W1673310716","https://openalex.org/W1992642990","https://openalex.org/W1998923944","https://openalex.org/W2049981393","https://openalex.org/W2121535648","https://openalex.org/W2125188427","https://openalex.org/W2151631165","https://openalex.org/W2160821342","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2519911873","https://openalex.org/W2565639579","https://openalex.org/W2776330782","https://openalex.org/W2794578160","https://openalex.org/W2912304985","https://openalex.org/W2963150697","https://openalex.org/W2982759113","https://openalex.org/W3035946635","https://openalex.org/W3111598592","https://openalex.org/W3190041572","https://openalex.org/W4286291407","https://openalex.org/W4386071589","https://openalex.org/W6652231383","https://openalex.org/W6677830229","https://openalex.org/W6799668006"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2005998065","https://openalex.org/W2001220299","https://openalex.org/W897367340","https://openalex.org/W4323518558","https://openalex.org/W3196715007","https://openalex.org/W4399030596","https://openalex.org/W2366440988","https://openalex.org/W2358582870","https://openalex.org/W4293059742","https://openalex.org/W2088131065"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0],"introduce":[1],"a":[2,43,71,95,117],"high-throughput":[3],"3D":[4,35,66],"scanning":[5,134],"system":[6,154],"designed":[7],"to":[8,60,86,108],"accurately":[9],"measure":[10],"cattle":[11,79,163],"phenotypes.":[12],"This":[13],"scanner":[14,104],"employs":[15],"an":[16],"array":[17],"of":[18,90,157,161],"depth":[19,58],"sensors,":[20,24],"i.e.,":[21],"time-of-flight":[22],"(ToF)":[23],"each":[25],"controlled":[26,118],"by":[27],"dedicated":[28],"embedded":[29],"devices.":[30],"The":[31,51,147],"sensors":[32],"generate":[33],"high-fidelity":[34],"point":[36,44,67],"clouds,":[37,68],"which":[38],"are":[39],"automatically":[40],"stitched":[41],"using":[42],"could":[45],"segmentation":[46],"approach":[47],"through":[48],"deep":[49,52],"learning.":[50],"learner":[53],"combines":[54],"raw":[55],"RGB":[56],"and":[57,73,112,128,142,167],"data":[59],"identify":[61],"correspondences":[62],"between":[63],"the":[64,78,82,88,103,126,152],"multiple":[65],"thus":[69],"creating":[70],"single":[72],"accurate":[74,110,165],"mesh":[75],"that":[76,151],"reconstructs":[77],"geometry":[80],"on":[81,145],"fly.":[83],"In":[84],"order":[85],"evaluate":[87],"performance":[89],"our":[91],"system,":[92],"we":[93,100,124,139],"implemented":[94],"two-fold":[96],"validation":[97],"process.":[98],"Initially,":[99],"quantitatively":[101],"tested":[102],"for":[105,130,171],"its":[106],"ability":[107],"determine":[109],"volume":[111,166],"surface":[113,168],"area":[114,169],"measurements":[115,144,170],"in":[116],"environment":[119],"featuring":[120],"known":[121],"objects.":[122],"Next,":[123],"explored":[125],"impact":[127],"need":[129],"multi-device":[131],"synchronization":[132],"when":[133],"moving":[135],"targets":[136],"(cattle).":[137],"Finally,":[138],"performed":[140],"qualitative":[141],"quantitative":[143],"cattle.":[146],"experimental":[148],"results":[149],"demonstrate":[150],"proposed":[153],"is":[155],"capable":[156],"producing":[158],"high-quality":[159],"meshes":[160],"untamed":[162],"with":[164],"livestock":[172],"studies.":[173]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}