{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391562809","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041070","title":"Model-Based 3D Gaze Estimation Using a TOF Camera","display_name":"Model-Based 3D Gaze Estimation Using a TOF Camera","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-02-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391562809","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041070","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38400227"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24041070","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041070","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1070/pdf?version=1707234633","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1070/pdf?version=1707234633","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102898941","display_name":"Keming Shen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3022-7973"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157507598","display_name":"Shenyang University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00d7f8730","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kuanxin Shen","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3022-7973","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5010853048","display_name":"Yingshun Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4388-6289"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I27357992","display_name":"Dalian University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/023hj5876","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I27357992"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yingshun Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27357992"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100967350","display_name":"Zhannan Guo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I27357992","display_name":"Dalian University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/023hj5876","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I27357992"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhannan Guo","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27357992"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100584128","display_name":"Jintao Gao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157507598","display_name":"Shenyang University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00d7f8730","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jintao Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5044110251","display_name":"Yingjian Wu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157507598","display_name":"Shenyang University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00d7f8730","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yingjian Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Chemical Process Automation, Shenyang University of Technology, Liaoyang 111003, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157507598"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5010853048"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27357992"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":2.5921,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.87991356,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"4","first_page":"1070","last_page":"1070"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10250","display_name":"Glaucoma and retinal disorders","score":0.9915000200271606,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2731","display_name":"Ophthalmology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":0.9775000214576721,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.8459879159927368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.8304780721664429},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gaze","display_name":"Gaze","score":0.8223495483398438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7205284833908081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rgb-color-model","display_name":"RGB color model","score":0.6361319422721863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6322482228279114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/face","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","score":0.4308284521102905}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.8459879159927368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.8304780721664429},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779916870","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14467155","display_name":"Gaze","level":2,"score":0.8223495483398438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7205284833908081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82990744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166194","display_name":"RGB color model","level":2,"score":0.6361319422721863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6322482228279114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.4308284521102905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24041070","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041070","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1070/pdf?version=1707234633","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:38400227","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38400227","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10891597","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10891597","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:65999360c542413e87337555c9af9021","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/65999360c542413e87337555c9af9021","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 4, p 1070 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24041070","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041070","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1070/pdf?version=1707234633","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities","score":0.6899999976158142,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391562809.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":42,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1769933788","https://openalex.org/W1970145098","https://openalex.org/W1988798713","https://openalex.org/W1995694455","https://openalex.org/W2019177772","https://openalex.org/W2027879843","https://openalex.org/W2048968870","https://openalex.org/W2158363907","https://openalex.org/W2166053089","https://openalex.org/W2299591120","https://openalex.org/W2395639500","https://openalex.org/W2413659642","https://openalex.org/W2468114283","https://openalex.org/W2543334305","https://openalex.org/W2557669140","https://openalex.org/W2563820573","https://openalex.org/W2595795946","https://openalex.org/W2740887493","https://openalex.org/W2743391672","https://openalex.org/W2743886810","https://openalex.org/W2765629358","https://openalex.org/W2793958520","https://openalex.org/W2796850409","https://openalex.org/W2807930328","https://openalex.org/W2981785948","https://openalex.org/W3023592552","https://openalex.org/W3032993438","https://openalex.org/W3037183258","https://openalex.org/W3043335761","https://openalex.org/W3093575810","https://openalex.org/W3096147990","https://openalex.org/W3137731530","https://openalex.org/W3200034414","https://openalex.org/W4210811389","https://openalex.org/W4220927758","https://openalex.org/W4281490595","https://openalex.org/W4308233968","https://openalex.org/W4367050083","https://openalex.org/W4390481633","https://openalex.org/W6684228839","https://openalex.org/W6761743520","https://openalex.org/W6779677569"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1880689012","https://openalex.org/W3014378845","https://openalex.org/W4240909707","https://openalex.org/W2059546927","https://openalex.org/W3207760378","https://openalex.org/W1986970529","https://openalex.org/W2562758970","https://openalex.org/W1563178652","https://openalex.org/W2947492009","https://openalex.org/W2385108104"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Among":[0],"the":[1,83,90,113,123,127,135,147,151,172,179,182,189,207,211,216],"numerous":[2],"gaze-estimation":[3,62],"methods":[4,8,34,46],"currently":[5],"available,":[6],"appearance-based":[7],"predominantly":[9],"use":[10],"RGB":[11,77],"images":[12,24,37,74,78],"as":[13,79,210],"input":[14,80],"and":[15,53,169,174,215],"employ":[16],"convolutional":[17],"neural":[18,100],"networks":[19],"(CNNs)":[20],"to":[21,25,38,81,103,149],"detect":[22,104],"facial":[23,109],"regressively":[26],"obtain":[27,39],"gaze":[28,31,93,153,184,201],"angles":[29],"or":[30],"points.":[32],"Model-based":[33],"require":[35],"high-resolution":[36],"a":[40,60,65,97,117,131,142,162,193],"clear":[41],"eyeball":[42,148],"geometric":[43,144],"model.":[44],"These":[45],"face":[47],"significant":[48],"challenges":[49],"in":[50,89,107,171,192],"outdoor":[51],"environments":[52],"practical":[54],"application":[55],"scenarios.":[56],"This":[57,70],"paper":[58],"proposes":[59],"model-based":[61],"algorithm":[63],"using":[64],"low-resolution":[66],"3D":[67,124,143],"TOF":[68],"camera.":[69],"study":[71],"uses":[72],"infrared":[73],"instead":[75],"of":[76,85,126,130,134,146,167,181],"overcome":[82],"impact":[84],"varying":[86],"illumination":[87],"intensity":[88],"environment":[91],"on":[92,138],"estimation.":[94],"We":[95,186],"utilized":[96],"trained":[98],"YOLOv8":[99],"network":[101],"model":[102,145],"eye":[105,133],"landmarks":[106],"captured":[108],"images.":[110],"Combined":[111],"with":[112],"depth":[114],"map":[115],"from":[116],"time-of-flight":[118],"(TOF)":[119],"camera,":[120],"we":[121,140],"calculated":[122],"coordinates":[125],"canthus":[128],"points":[129],"single":[132],"subject.":[136],"Based":[137],"this,":[139],"fitted":[141],"determine":[150],"subject's":[152,183],"angle.":[154,185],"Experimental":[155],"validation":[156],"showed":[157],"that":[158],"our":[159],"method":[160,191],"achieved":[161],"root":[163],"mean":[164],"square":[165],"error":[166],"6.03\u00b0":[168],"4.83\u00b0":[170],"horizontal":[173],"vertical":[175],"directions,":[176],"respectively,":[177],"for":[178],"detection":[180,202],"also":[187],"tested":[188],"proposed":[190],"real":[194],"car":[195],"driving":[196],"environment,":[197],"achieving":[198],"stable":[199],"driver":[200,213],"at":[203],"various":[204],"locations":[205],"inside":[206],"car,":[208],"such":[209],"dashboard,":[212],"mirror,":[214],"in-vehicle":[217],"screen.":[218]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-07-15T18:14:33.161393","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}