{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391345191","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","title":"Explainable Machine Learning for LoRaWAN Link Budget Analysis and Modeling","display_name":"Explainable Machine Learning for LoRaWAN Link Budget Analysis and Modeling","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391345191","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38339577"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24030860","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/3/860/pdf?version=1706506706","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/3/860/pdf?version=1706506706","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022764325","display_name":"Salaheddin Hosseinzadeh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6253-5287"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","display_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03dvm1235","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Salaheddin Hosseinzadeh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6253-5287","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085428147","display_name":"Moses Ashawa","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1016-0791"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","display_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03dvm1235","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Moses Ashawa","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1016-0791","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006442034","display_name":"Nsikak Owoh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4840-9345"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","display_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03dvm1235","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nsikak Owoh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083724607","display_name":"Hadi Larijani","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6826-207X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","display_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03dvm1235","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hadi Larijani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6826-207X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112423209","display_name":"Krystyna Curtis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","display_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03dvm1235","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Krystyna Curtis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cybersecurity and Networks, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5022764325"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":1.831,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.84719184,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"3","first_page":"860","last_page":"860"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12079","display_name":"IoT Networks and Protocols","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12079","display_name":"IoT Networks and Protocols","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11932","display_name":"Wireless Body Area Networks","score":0.9940000176429749,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11392","display_name":"Energy Harvesting in Wireless Networks","score":0.9908000230789185,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretability","display_name":"Interpretability","score":0.7983551025390625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7492230534553528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.6377198100090027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.616098165512085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/decision-tree","display_name":"Decision tree","score":0.5946197509765625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5319286584854126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/link-budget","display_name":"Link budget","score":0.4925261437892914},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gradient-boosting","display_name":"Gradient boosting","score":0.477678120136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/clutter","display_name":"Clutter","score":0.4272310137748718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mean-squared-error","display_name":"Mean squared error","score":0.41936278343200684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-selection","display_name":"Feature selection","score":0.4172777533531189},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.40134358406066895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/radar","display_name":"Radar","score":0.20772403478622437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"Random forest","score":0.19689717888832092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.17713943123817444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless","display_name":"Wireless","score":0.12462088465690613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/database","display_name":"Database","score":0.10618823766708374}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781067378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17027399","display_name":"Interpretability","level":2,"score":0.7983551025390625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7492230534553528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.6377198100090027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.616098165512085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84525736","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831366","display_name":"Decision tree","level":2,"score":0.5946197509765625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5319286584854126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94137725","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1509342","display_name":"Link budget","level":3,"score":0.4925261437892914},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70153297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5591907","display_name":"Gradient boosting","level":3,"score":0.477678120136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132094186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q641585","display_name":"Clutter","level":3,"score":0.4272310137748718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139945424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1940696","display_name":"Mean squared error","level":2,"score":0.41936278343200684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148483581","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q446488","display_name":"Feature selection","level":2,"score":0.4172777533531189},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.40134358406066895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.20772403478622437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.19689717888832092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.17713943123817444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.12462088465690613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77088390","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8513","display_name":"Database","level":1,"score":0.10618823766708374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24030860","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/3/860/pdf?version=1706506706","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:38339577","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38339577","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10857388","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10857388","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10857388/pdf/sensors-24-00860.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:researchonline.gcu.ac.uk:openaire_cris_publications/bee7558f-be54-4970-b5ee-c7d12859a5d0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://researchonline.gcu.ac.uk/en/publications/bee7558f-be54-4970-b5ee-c7d12859a5d0","pdf_url":"https://researchonline.gcu.ac.uk/ws/files/84356762/84353968.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402566","display_name":"ResearchOnline (Glasgow Caledonian University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I195939026","host_organization_name":"Glasgow Caledonian University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I195939026"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Hosseinzadeh, S, Ashawa, M, Owoh, N, Larijani, H & Curtis, K 2024, 'Explainable machine learning for LoRaWAN link budget analysis and modeling', Sensors, vol. 24, no. 3, 860. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4379add2dc8c4f9abf215ac0271f58dd","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4379add2dc8c4f9abf215ac0271f58dd","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 3, p 860 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24030860","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030860","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/3/860/pdf?version=1706506706","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Affordable and clean energy","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7","score":0.8500000238418579}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391345191.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1490921409","https://openalex.org/W1860447447","https://openalex.org/W1987964582","https://openalex.org/W2081059972","https://openalex.org/W2105251982","https://openalex.org/W2137983211","https://openalex.org/W2243299349","https://openalex.org/W2282821441","https://openalex.org/W2525332113","https://openalex.org/W2749464861","https://openalex.org/W2759236844","https://openalex.org/W2772445271","https://openalex.org/W2786532721","https://openalex.org/W2912185124","https://openalex.org/W2921800926","https://openalex.org/W2924595251","https://openalex.org/W2963238594","https://openalex.org/W2972468666","https://openalex.org/W2972776399","https://openalex.org/W2975495759","https://openalex.org/W2981455641","https://openalex.org/W3009345526","https://openalex.org/W3025238772","https://openalex.org/W3081154744","https://openalex.org/W3090748139","https://openalex.org/W3116286104","https://openalex.org/W3131967102","https://openalex.org/W3152586515","https://openalex.org/W3179165075","https://openalex.org/W4212777620","https://openalex.org/W4212889502","https://openalex.org/W4315652086","https://openalex.org/W4317726911","https://openalex.org/W4383754123","https://openalex.org/W4385461687","https://openalex.org/W4386620150","https://openalex.org/W4387227803","https://openalex.org/W6647286780","https://openalex.org/W6732860198","https://openalex.org/W6759049516","https://openalex.org/W6848866406"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2905433371","https://openalex.org/W2888392564","https://openalex.org/W4310278675","https://openalex.org/W4293151273","https://openalex.org/W4389889055","https://openalex.org/W4313424649","https://openalex.org/W3127117601","https://openalex.org/W4311326873","https://openalex.org/W4392450732","https://openalex.org/W4293093830"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,82],"article":[1],"explores":[2],"the":[3,57,78,91,108,158,163],"convergence":[4],"of":[5,14,61,66,93,119,144,157,180,186,188],"artificial":[6],"intelligence":[7],"and":[8,41,153,168,183],"its":[9,70],"challenges":[10,164],"for":[11,34],"precise":[12],"planning":[13],"LoRa":[15],"networks.":[16,190],"It":[17],"examines":[18],"machine":[19],"learning":[20],"algorithms":[21],"in":[22],"conjunction":[23],"with":[24,127,166],"empirically":[25],"collected":[26],"data":[27,47],"to":[28,75,88,115,123,148],"develop":[29],"an":[30],"effective":[31],"propagation":[32,80],"model":[33,68],"LoRaWAN.":[35],"We":[36],"propose":[37],"decoupling":[38],"feature":[39],"extraction":[40],"regression":[42],"analysis,":[43,52,176],"which":[44,72,138],"facilitates":[45],"training":[46],"requirements.":[48],"In":[49],"our":[50],"comparative":[51],"decision-tree-based":[53],"gradient":[54],"boosting":[55],"achieved":[56],"lowest":[58],"root-mean-squared":[59],"error":[60],"5.53":[62],"dBm.":[63],"Another":[64],"advantage":[65],"this":[67,145],"is":[69,73],"interpretability,":[71],"exploited":[74],"qualitatively":[76],"observe":[77],"governing":[79],"mechanisms.":[81],"approach":[83],"provides":[84],"a":[85,102,134,149,154],"unique":[86],"opportunity":[87],"practically":[89],"understand":[90],"dependence":[92],"signal":[94],"strength":[95],"on":[96],"other":[97],"variables.":[98],"The":[99,117,142],"analysis":[100],"revealed":[101,122],"1.5":[103],"dBm":[104],"sensitivity":[105],"improvement":[106],"as":[107,130],"LoR's":[109],"spreading":[110],"factor":[111],"changed":[112],"from":[113],"7":[114],"12.":[116],"impact":[118],"clutter":[120,131],"was":[121],"be":[124],"highly":[125],"non-linear,":[126],"high":[128],"attenuations":[129],"increased":[132],"until":[133],"certain":[135],"point,":[136],"after":[137],"it":[139],"became":[140],"ineffective.":[141],"outcome":[143],"work":[146],"leads":[147],"more":[150],"accurate":[151],"estimation":[152],"better":[155],"understanding":[156],"LoRa's":[159],"propagation.":[160],"Consequently,":[161],"mitigating":[162],"associated":[165],"large-scale":[167],"dense":[169],"LoRaWAN":[170],"deployments,":[171],"enabling":[172],"improved":[173],"link":[174],"budget":[175],"interference":[177],"management,":[178],"quality":[179],"service,":[181],"scalability,":[182],"energy":[184],"efficiency":[185],"Internet":[187],"Things":[189]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-06-19T17:40:00.097472","created_date":"2024-01-31T00:00:00"}
