{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4390932909","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020560","title":"Evaluation of a Machine Learning Algorithm to Classify Ultrasonic Transducer Misalignment and Deployment Using TinyML","display_name":"Evaluation of a Machine Learning Algorithm to Classify Ultrasonic Transducer Misalignment and Deployment Using TinyML","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-16","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4390932909","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020560","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38257653"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020560","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020560","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/560/pdf?version=1705394444","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/560/pdf?version=1705394444","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5004779346","display_name":"Des Brennan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0066-2405"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Des Brennan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tyndall National Institute, University College, T12 K8AF Cork, Ireland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tyndall National Institute, University College, T12 K8AF Cork, Ireland","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065665382","display_name":"Paul Galvin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7890-0493"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Paul Galvin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tyndall National Institute, University College, T12 K8AF Cork, Ireland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tyndall National Institute, University College, T12 K8AF Cork, Ireland","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5004779346"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":1.2167,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":5,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.72465552,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"2","first_page":"560","last_page":"560"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12537","display_name":"Flow Measurement and Analysis","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2211","display_name":"Mechanics of Materials"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12537","display_name":"Flow Measurement and Analysis","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2211","display_name":"Mechanics of Materials"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11778","display_name":"Electrical and Bioimpedance Tomography","score":0.9901000261306763,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13928","display_name":"Advanced Sensor Technologies Research","score":0.9750999808311462,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.7721768617630005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transducer","display_name":"Transducer","score":0.7140592336654663},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ultrasonic-sensor","display_name":"Ultrasonic sensor","score":0.6866569519042969},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5186323523521423},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.49727800488471985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4411587417125702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4019395112991333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/acoustics","display_name":"Acoustics","score":0.39347901940345764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.32392579317092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.13097727298736572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-engineering","display_name":"Software engineering","score":0.10249394178390503}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.7721768617630005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56318395","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215928","display_name":"Transducer","level":2,"score":0.7140592336654663},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81288441","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20736125","display_name":"Ultrasonic sensor","level":2,"score":0.6866569519042969},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5186323523521423},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.49727800488471985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4411587417125702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4019395112991333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24890656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82811","display_name":"Acoustics","level":1,"score":0.39347901940345764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.32392579317092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.13097727298736572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115903868","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80993","display_name":"Software engineering","level":1,"score":0.10249394178390503}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020560","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020560","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/560/pdf?version=1705394444","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:38257653","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38257653","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10818582","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10818582","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10818582/pdf/sensors-24-00560.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:94348b5528a848f6a78875e15b5ded8b","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/94348b5528a848f6a78875e15b5ded8b","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 2, p 560 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020560","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020560","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/560/pdf?version=1705394444","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1732264606","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"SFI/12/RC/2289-P2","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2629015153","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"SFI/12/RC/2289-P2","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320847","funder_display_name":"Science Foundation Ireland"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3173112327","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"H2020-ECSEL-2019-IA-876190","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4530563744","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"IR 2020 0053B","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320847","funder_display_name":"Science Foundation Ireland"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5357824321","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"H2020-ECSEL-2019-IA-876190","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327207","funder_display_name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6077396133","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"IR 2020 0053B","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8613788566","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"H2020-ECSEL-2019-IA-876190","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320847","funder_display_name":"Science Foundation Ireland"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8652133946","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"IR 2020 0053B","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320834","funder_display_name":"Enterprise Ireland"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320834","display_name":"Enterprise Ireland","ror":"https://ror.org/023z51242"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320847","display_name":"Science Foundation Ireland","ror":"https://ror.org/0271asj38"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327207","display_name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4390932909.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1969068204","https://openalex.org/W1981860553","https://openalex.org/W2004771128","https://openalex.org/W2113356819","https://openalex.org/W2124072473","https://openalex.org/W2782708173","https://openalex.org/W2901115704","https://openalex.org/W2923222994","https://openalex.org/W3067862503","https://openalex.org/W3093348380","https://openalex.org/W3128301555","https://openalex.org/W3163156747","https://openalex.org/W3181964041","https://openalex.org/W4232842671","https://openalex.org/W4282025104","https://openalex.org/W4293546633","https://openalex.org/W4296079341","https://openalex.org/W4312327343","https://openalex.org/W4382874334"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2366424944","https://openalex.org/W2089829884","https://openalex.org/W3034962873","https://openalex.org/W2383068986","https://openalex.org/W2090275562","https://openalex.org/W3152005513","https://openalex.org/W2020960496","https://openalex.org/W1266100159","https://openalex.org/W2088920587","https://openalex.org/W2380594826"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,84,97],"challenge":[1],"for":[2,107],"ultrasonic":[3,184,189],"(US)":[4],"power":[5,113,198],"transfer":[6],"systems,":[7],"in":[8,200],"implanted/wearable":[9],"medical":[10],"devices,":[11],"is":[12],"to":[13,20,39,73,125,140,148,152,173,179],"determine":[14],"when":[15],"misalignment":[16,82,154],"occurs":[17],"(e.g.,":[18],"due":[19],"body":[21,203],"motion)":[22],"and":[23,52,69,75,93,135,202],"apply":[24,174],"directional":[25],"correction":[26],"accordingly.":[27],"In":[28],"this":[29],"study,":[30],"a":[31,62,104],"number":[32],"of":[33,64,194],"machine":[34,77],"learning":[35,78],"algorithms":[36,85,122,178],"were":[37,59,71,123,138],"evaluated":[38],"classify":[40,149],"US":[41,57,180],"transducer":[42,65,153,185,190],"misalignment,":[43],"based":[44],"on":[45,127],"data":[46],"signal":[47,163],"transmissions":[48],"between":[49],"the":[50,145,171],"transmitter":[51],"receiver.":[53],"Over":[54],"seven":[55],"hundred":[56],"signals":[58,150],"acquired":[60],"across":[61],"range":[63],"misalignments.":[66],"Signal":[67],"envelopes":[68],"spectrograms":[70],"used":[72,139],"train":[74],"evaluate":[76],"(ML)":[79],"algorithms,":[80],"classifying":[81],"extent.":[83,155],"included":[86],"an":[87],"autoencoder,":[88],"convolutional":[89],"neural":[90,94],"network":[91,95],"(CNN)":[92],"(NN).":[96],"best":[98],"performing":[99],"algorithm,":[100],"was":[101],"deployed":[102],"onto":[103,144],"TinyML":[105,156],"device":[106,119],"evaluation.":[108],"Such":[109],"systems":[110],"exploit":[111],"low":[112,128],"microcontrollers":[114],"developed":[115],"specifically":[116],"around":[117],"edge":[118,146],"applications,":[120],"where":[121],"configured":[124],"run":[126],"power,":[129],"restricted":[130],"memory":[131],"systems.":[132,205],"TensorFlow":[133],"Lite":[134],"Edge":[136],"Impulse,":[137],"deploy":[141],"trained":[142],"models":[143],"device,":[147],"according":[151],"deployment,":[157],"demonstrated":[158],"near":[159],"real-time":[160],"(<350":[161],"ms)":[162],"classification":[164],"achieving":[165],"accuracies":[166],">":[167],"99%.":[168],"This":[169],"opens":[170],"possibility":[172],"such":[175],"ML":[176],"alignment":[177],"arrays":[181],"(capacitive":[182],"micro-machined":[183,188],"(CMUT),":[186],"piezoelectric":[187],"(PMUT)":[191],"devices)":[192],"capable":[193],"beam-steering,":[195],"significantly":[196],"enhancing":[197],"delivery":[199],"implanted":[201],"worn":[204]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}