{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4390879300","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020514","title":"Evaluation of Inference Performance of Deep Learning Models for Real-Time Weed Detection in an Embedded Computer","display_name":"Evaluation of Inference Performance of Deep Learning Models for Real-Time Weed Detection in an Embedded Computer","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-14","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4390879300","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020514","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38257609"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020514","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020514","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/514/pdf?version=1705221580","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/514/pdf?version=1705221580","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056971519","display_name":"Canicius Mwitta","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3426-4904"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165733156","display_name":"University of Georgia","ror":"https://ror.org/00te3t702","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Canicius Mwitta","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA","Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3426-4904","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5021411079","display_name":"Glen C. Rains","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2497-5422"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165733156","display_name":"University of Georgia","ror":"https://ror.org/00te3t702","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Glen C. Rains","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2497-5422","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071969033","display_name":"Eric P. Prostko","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7896-5545"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165733156","display_name":"University of Georgia","ror":"https://ror.org/00te3t702","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Eric Prostko","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA","Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793, USA;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5021411079","https://openalex.org/A5056971519"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165733156"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"fwci":17.7844,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":39,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99349257,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"2","first_page":"514","last_page":"514"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.9983000159263611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.9983000159263611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12894","display_name":"Date Palm Research Studies","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10166","display_name":"Mosquito-borne diseases and control","score":0.9754999876022339,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2739","display_name":"Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.7923918962478638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.733395516872406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7172648906707764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.5480870604515076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.5346727967262268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.5023431777954102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.4934524595737457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/weed","display_name":"Weed","score":0.48843613266944885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transfer-of-learning","display_name":"Transfer of learning","score":0.4446243643760681}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.7923918962478638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.733395516872406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7172648906707764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5480870604515076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.5346727967262268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.5023431777954102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.4934524595737457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775891814","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101879","display_name":"Weed","level":2,"score":0.48843613266944885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150899416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820378","display_name":"Transfer of learning","level":2,"score":0.4446243643760681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6557445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173113","display_name":"Agronomy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020514","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020514","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/514/pdf?version=1705221580","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:38257609","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38257609","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10819251","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10819251","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10819251/pdf/sensors-24-00514.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:25722c5df28347798456c7442e2f816c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/25722c5df28347798456c7442e2f816c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 24, Iss 2, p 514 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s24020514","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020514","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/2/514/pdf?version=1705221580","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Zero hunger","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/2","score":0.47999998927116394}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4390879300.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":41,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W42520951","https://openalex.org/W1861492603","https://openalex.org/W1950888772","https://openalex.org/W1967020169","https://openalex.org/W2023884096","https://openalex.org/W2031489346","https://openalex.org/W2035759078","https://openalex.org/W2095699113","https://openalex.org/W2123566274","https://openalex.org/W2143672596","https://openalex.org/W2162723078","https://openalex.org/W2177754534","https://openalex.org/W2180653269","https://openalex.org/W2623225060","https://openalex.org/W2717881181","https://openalex.org/W2743449486","https://openalex.org/W2767767563","https://openalex.org/W2802758625","https://openalex.org/W2886986190","https://openalex.org/W2889730635","https://openalex.org/W2954996726","https://openalex.org/W2956274063","https://openalex.org/W2963037989","https://openalex.org/W2998514016","https://openalex.org/W3034971973","https://openalex.org/W3039926407","https://openalex.org/W3041133507","https://openalex.org/W3043995050","https://openalex.org/W3115519526","https://openalex.org/W3123611094","https://openalex.org/W3176923149","https://openalex.org/W3205617754","https://openalex.org/W4205770124","https://openalex.org/W4211098368","https://openalex.org/W4212969988","https://openalex.org/W4284686811","https://openalex.org/W4307947964","https://openalex.org/W6713134421","https://openalex.org/W6739547170","https://openalex.org/W6761108903","https://openalex.org/W6772481743"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4206357785","https://openalex.org/W4281381188","https://openalex.org/W3192840557","https://openalex.org/W2951211570","https://openalex.org/W4375928479","https://openalex.org/W3167935049","https://openalex.org/W3023427754","https://openalex.org/W3131673289","https://openalex.org/W4393011546","https://openalex.org/W3198847674"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,199],"knowledge":[1],"that":[2,83,100,114,202,249,259],"precision":[3,239,315],"weed":[4,37,51,66,140,330],"control":[5],"in":[6,28,56,80,89,105,121,172,287],"agricultural":[7],"fields":[8],"can":[9],"reduce":[10],"waste":[11],"and":[12,25,95,151,179,220,258,303],"increase":[13],"productivity":[14],"has":[15],"led":[16],"to":[17,40,43,119,193],"research":[18,109],"into":[19,110],"autonomous":[20],"machines":[21],"capable":[22],"of":[23,32,65,133,143,169,177,215,240,277,298,316],"detecting":[24,173],"removing":[26],"weeds":[27,178],"real":[29],"time.":[30],"One":[31],"the":[33,63,139,167,170,207,260,266,271,278],"driving":[34],"factors":[35],"for":[36,87,124,284,328],"detection":[38,67,134,141,261],"is":[39],"develop":[41,53],"alternatives":[42],"herbicides,":[44],"which":[45],"are":[46,84,101,115],"becoming":[47],"less":[48],"effective":[49],"as":[50],"species":[52,176],"resistance.":[54],"Advances":[55],"deep":[57,70,111,146,196],"learning":[58,71,112,147,197],"technology":[59],"have":[60],"significantly":[61],"improved":[62,285],"robustness":[64],"tasks.":[68],"However,":[69],"algorithms":[72],"often":[73],"require":[74,254],"extensive":[75],"computational":[76],"resources,":[77],"typically":[78],"found":[79],"powerful":[81,195],"computers":[82,99,123],"not":[85,264],"suitable":[86],"deployment":[88],"robotic":[90],"platforms.":[91],"Most":[92],"ground":[93],"rovers":[94],"UAVs":[96],"utilize":[97],"embedded":[98,122,158,190,272,289],"portable":[102],"but":[103],"limited":[104],"performance.":[106],"This":[107,136],"necessitates":[108],"models":[113,171],"computationally":[116],"lightweight":[117,275],"enough":[118],"function":[120],"real-time":[125,182,329],"applications":[126,252],"while":[127,234],"still":[128],"maintaining":[129,235],"a":[130,156,194,226,236,243,274,310,319],"base":[131],"level":[132],"accuracy.":[135],"paper":[137],"evaluates":[138],"performance":[142,286],"three":[144],"real-time-capable":[145],"models,":[148,209],"YOLOv4,":[149],"EfficientDet,":[150],"CenterNet,":[152],"when":[153,228],"run":[154,229],"on":[155,188,225,230,270],"deep-learning-enabled":[157],"computer,":[159,233,273],"an":[160,189,211,231,288,294,325],"Nvidia":[161],"Jetson":[162],"Xavier":[163],"AGX.":[164],"We":[165],"tested":[166,283],"accuracy":[168],"13":[174],"different":[175],"assesses":[180],"their":[181,185],"viability":[183],"through":[184],"inference":[186,213,296],"speeds":[187],"computer":[191],"compared":[192],"PC.":[198],"results":[200],"showed":[201],"YOLOv4":[203,279],"performed":[204],"better":[205],"than":[206],"other":[208],"achieving":[210],"average":[212,238,295,314],"speed":[214,297],"80":[216],"ms":[217,300],"per":[218,223,301,306],"image":[219,302],"14":[221],"frames":[222,305],"second":[224],"video":[227],"imbedded":[232],"mean":[237,313],"93.4%":[241],"at":[242,318],"50%":[244,320],"IoU":[245,321],"threshold.":[246],"Furthermore,":[247],"recognizing":[248],"some":[250],"real-world":[251],"may":[253],"even":[255],"greater":[256],"speed,":[257],"program":[262],"would":[263],"be":[265],"only":[267],"task":[268],"running":[269],"version":[276],"model,":[280],"YOLOv4-tiny,":[281],"was":[282],"computer.":[290],"YOLOv4-tiny":[291],"impressively":[292],"achieved":[293],"24.5":[299],"52":[304],"second,":[307],"albeit":[308],"with":[309],"slightly":[311],"reduced":[312],"89%":[317],"threshold,":[322],"making":[323],"it":[324],"ideal":[326],"choice":[327],"detection.":[331]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":19},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":10}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}