{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4353089946","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","title":"An Event-Classification Neural Network Approach for Rapid Railroad Bridge Impact Detection","display_name":"An Event-Classification Neural Network Approach for Rapid Railroad Bridge Impact Detection","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-03-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4353089946","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36992040"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23063330","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/6/3330/pdf?version=1679468144","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/6/3330/pdf?version=1679468144","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034677202","display_name":"Omobolaji Lawal","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8478-8434"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157725225","display_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","ror":"https://ror.org/047426m28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183874917","display_name":"Urbana University","ror":"https://ror.org/04kp3hw27","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183874917"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Omobolaji Lawal","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8478-8434","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183874917","https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028148182","display_name":"Shaik Althaf V. Shajihan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5159-4983"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157725225","display_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","ror":"https://ror.org/047426m28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183874917","display_name":"Urbana University","ror":"https://ror.org/04kp3hw27","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183874917"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shaik Althaf V. Shajihan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5159-4983","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183874917","https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058622362","display_name":"Kirill Mechitov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4321-4415"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157725225","display_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","ror":"https://ror.org/047426m28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183874917","display_name":"Urbana University","ror":"https://ror.org/04kp3hw27","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183874917"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kirill Mechitov","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4321-4415","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183874917","https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000232588","display_name":"Billie F. Spencer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0517-7908"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157725225","display_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","ror":"https://ror.org/047426m28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183874917","display_name":"Urbana University","ror":"https://ror.org/04kp3hw27","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183874917"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Billie F. Spencer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Matthews Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183874917","https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5000232588"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157725225","https://openalex.org/I183874917"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":0.866,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.68936654,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"6","first_page":"3330","last_page":"3330"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11606","display_name":"Infrastructure Maintenance and Monitoring","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11606","display_name":"Infrastructure Maintenance and Monitoring","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14445","display_name":"Transportation Safety and Impact Analysis","score":0.9840999841690063,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10534","display_name":"Structural Health Monitoring Techniques","score":0.982200026512146,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2205","display_name":"Civil and Structural Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bridge","display_name":"Bridge (graph theory)","score":0.7245580554008484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.6700219511985779},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/event","display_name":"Event (particle physics)","score":0.5558333992958069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.45813751220703125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.4474225640296936},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/forensic-engineering","display_name":"Forensic engineering","score":0.41045716404914856},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3865131139755249}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100776233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2532492","display_name":"Bridge (graph theory)","level":2,"score":0.7245580554008484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.6700219511985779},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779662365","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5416694","display_name":"Event (particle physics)","level":2,"score":0.5558333992958069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.45813751220703125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4474225640296936},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77595967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3151013","display_name":"Forensic engineering","level":1,"score":0.41045716404914856},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3865131139755249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126322002","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11180","display_name":"Internal medicine","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23063330","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/6/3330/pdf?version=1679468144","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:36992040","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36992040","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10054092","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10054092","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10054092/pdf/sensors-23-03330.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:aa6354ef5a974e75b478b121a009c3a3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/aa6354ef5a974e75b478b121a009c3a3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 23, Iss 6, p 3330 (2023)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/23/6/3330/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 23; Issue 6; Pages: 3330","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23063330","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063330","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/6/3330/pdf?version=1679468144","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G179413102","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DTFR53-17-C00007","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2979028619","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DTFR53-17-C00007","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332391","funder_display_name":"Federal Railroad Administration"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3108430024","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"1913947","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7184319715","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"1913947","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332391","funder_display_name":"Federal Railroad Administration"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332391","display_name":"Federal Railroad Administration","ror":"https://ror.org/0275ebj77"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4353089946.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":32,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W134027274","https://openalex.org/W654104603","https://openalex.org/W1522657622","https://openalex.org/W1903863260","https://openalex.org/W1978134971","https://openalex.org/W1986917282","https://openalex.org/W2075017290","https://openalex.org/W2096599888","https://openalex.org/W2120417050","https://openalex.org/W2125196586","https://openalex.org/W2149308034","https://openalex.org/W2152401656","https://openalex.org/W2471254393","https://openalex.org/W2571293098","https://openalex.org/W2590665418","https://openalex.org/W2775690273","https://openalex.org/W2889314284","https://openalex.org/W2892174470","https://openalex.org/W2899627945","https://openalex.org/W2905384394","https://openalex.org/W2960833983","https://openalex.org/W2967918197","https://openalex.org/W2983280015","https://openalex.org/W2988218416","https://openalex.org/W3044769629","https://openalex.org/W3092181448","https://openalex.org/W3159941795","https://openalex.org/W4205411716","https://openalex.org/W4229014304","https://openalex.org/W4281641828","https://openalex.org/W4289529663","https://openalex.org/W6638729785"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1501776718","https://openalex.org/W2615136228","https://openalex.org/W657108774","https://openalex.org/W2390192952","https://openalex.org/W2373296418","https://openalex.org/W3213254966","https://openalex.org/W2377265617","https://openalex.org/W2156207377","https://openalex.org/W2606903351","https://openalex.org/W177731724"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Railroads":[0],"are":[1,58,176],"a":[2,51,146,153,217],"critical":[3,90],"part":[4,42],"of":[5,16,29,36,43,84,97,132,203,222],"the":[6,17,27,44,71,82,92,130,210],"United":[7],"States'":[8],"transportation":[9],"sector.":[10],"Over":[11],"40":[12],"percent":[13],"(by":[14],"weight)":[15],"nation's":[18],"freight":[19,37,45],"is":[20,47,89,128,157,170,205,214,224],"transported":[21],"by":[22],"rail,":[23],"and":[24,73,95,141,227],"according":[25],"to":[26,60,70,75],"Bureau":[28],"Transportation":[30],"statistics,":[31],"railroads":[32],"moved":[33],"$186.5":[34],"billion":[35],"in":[38,78],"2021.":[39],"A":[40],"vital":[41],"network":[46,169],"railroad":[48,98,185],"bridges,":[49],"with":[50,172],"good":[52],"number":[53],"being":[54],"low-clearance":[55],"bridges":[56],"that":[57,129],"prone":[59],"impacts":[61,66,85,140],"from":[62,86,178,182,207],"over-height":[63,87],"vehicles;":[64],"such":[65,144],"can":[67],"cause":[68],"damage":[69],"bridge":[72,108],"lead":[74],"unwanted":[76],"interruption":[77],"its":[79],"usage.":[80],"Therefore,":[81],"detection":[83,162],"vehicles":[88],"for":[91,159,219],"safe":[93],"operation":[94],"maintenance":[96],"bridges.":[99,186],"While":[100],"some":[101],"previous":[102],"studies":[103],"have":[104],"been":[105],"published":[106],"regarding":[107],"impact":[109,161],"detection,":[110],"most":[111],"approaches":[112],"utilize":[113],"more":[114],"expensive":[115],"wired":[116],"sensors,":[117],"as":[118,120,145,192],"well":[119],"relying":[121],"on":[122],"simple":[123],"threshold-based":[124],"detection.":[125],"The":[126,167,187],"challenge":[127],"use":[131],"vibration":[133],"thresholds":[134],"may":[135],"not":[136],"accurately":[137],"distinguish":[138],"between":[139],"other":[142,197],"events,":[143],"common":[147],"train":[148,194],"crossing.":[149],"In":[150],"this":[151],"paper,":[152],"machine":[154],"learning":[155],"approach":[156],"developed":[158],"accurate":[160],"using":[163,229],"event-triggered":[164],"wireless":[165],"sensors.":[166],"neural":[168],"trained":[171,188],"key":[173],"features":[174],"which":[175],"extracted":[177],"event":[179],"responses":[180],"collected":[181],"two":[183],"instrumented":[184],"model":[189],"classifies":[190],"events":[191,223],"impacts,":[193],"crossings,":[195],"or":[196],"events.":[198],"An":[199],"average":[200],"classification":[201,221],"accuracy":[202],"98.67%":[204],"obtained":[206],"cross-validation,":[208],"while":[209],"false":[211],"positive":[212],"rate":[213],"minimal.":[215],"Finally,":[216],"framework":[218],"edge":[220,231],"also":[225],"proposed":[226],"demonstrated":[228],"an":[230],"device.":[232]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}