{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4320732144","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","title":"A Multi-Stage Deep-Learning-Based Vehicle and License Plate Recognition System with Real-Time Edge Inference","display_name":"A Multi-Stage Deep-Learning-Based Vehicle and License Plate Recognition System with Real-Time Edge Inference","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-02-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4320732144","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36850714"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23042120","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/4/2120/pdf?version=1676362088","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/4/2120/pdf?version=1676362088","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014758459","display_name":"Adel Ammar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0795-132X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Adel Ammar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0795-132X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024626195","display_name":"Anis Koub\u00e2a","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3787-7423"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Anis Koubaa","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3787-7423","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042123158","display_name":"Wadii Boulila","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2133-0757"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wadii Boulila","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2133-0757","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085663479","display_name":"Bilel Benjdira","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3057-4924"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bilel Benjdira","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3057-4924","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5050720870","display_name":"Yasser Alhabashi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7738-9489"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yasser Alhabashi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotics and Internet-of-Things Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5014758459","https://openalex.org/A5024626195"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":8.217,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":54,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97927233,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"4","first_page":"2120","last_page":"2120"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12707","display_name":"Vehicle License Plate Recognition","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12707","display_name":"Vehicle License Plate Recognition","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9990000128746033,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10601","display_name":"Handwritten Text Recognition Techniques","score":0.9718999862670898,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7140223979949951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7044169306755066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/license","display_name":"License","score":0.6770846247673035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.5679457187652588},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-neuroscience-of-visual-object-recognition","display_name":"Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition","score":0.4784957468509674},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/edge-detection","display_name":"Edge detection","score":0.477500855922699},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image-processing","display_name":"Image processing","score":0.46561312675476074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.4618223309516907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/redundancy","display_name":"Redundancy (engineering)","score":0.4455889165401459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.43154534697532654},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/enhanced-data-rates-for-gsm-evolution","display_name":"Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution","score":0.42304155230522156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-extraction","display_name":"Feature extraction","score":0.277645468711853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.15992608666419983}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7140223979949951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7044169306755066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780560020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79719","display_name":"License","level":2,"score":0.6770846247673035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.5679457187652588},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64876066","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5141226","display_name":"Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition","level":3,"score":0.4784957468509674},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193536780","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513153","display_name":"Edge detection","level":4,"score":0.477500855922699},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9417928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689","display_name":"Image processing","level":3,"score":0.46561312675476074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.4618223309516907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152124472","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1204361","display_name":"Redundancy (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.4455889165401459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.43154534697532654},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162307627","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204833","display_name":"Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution","level":2,"score":0.42304155230522156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.277645468711853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.15992608666419983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23042120","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/4/2120/pdf?version=1676362088","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:36850714","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36850714","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9966104","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9966104","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:47f3cf4f326549f39d85f5ae06b04da3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/47f3cf4f326549f39d85f5ae06b04da3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 23, Iss 4, p 2120 (2023)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/23/4/2120/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s23042120","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042120","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/4/2120/pdf?version=1676362088","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327702","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4320732144.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":48,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1893539925","https://openalex.org/W1995060904","https://openalex.org/W2054256694","https://openalex.org/W2090216855","https://openalex.org/W2100483895","https://openalex.org/W2108598243","https://openalex.org/W2120271480","https://openalex.org/W2120866931","https://openalex.org/W2132549992","https://openalex.org/W2252355370","https://openalex.org/W2324325016","https://openalex.org/W2327043557","https://openalex.org/W2514173981","https://openalex.org/W2531409750","https://openalex.org/W2532928589","https://openalex.org/W2539092855","https://openalex.org/W2570343428","https://openalex.org/W2603203130","https://openalex.org/W2613718673","https://openalex.org/W2748854270","https://openalex.org/W2766348832","https://openalex.org/W2785672431","https://openalex.org/W2901533770","https://openalex.org/W2917154014","https://openalex.org/W2944525610","https://openalex.org/W2949749214","https://openalex.org/W2963037989","https://openalex.org/W2963163009","https://openalex.org/W2963958441","https://openalex.org/W2991582583","https://openalex.org/W2994349932","https://openalex.org/W3004969510","https://openalex.org/W3010381534","https://openalex.org/W3034971973","https://openalex.org/W3104218139","https://openalex.org/W3116741301","https://openalex.org/W3128702906","https://openalex.org/W3150428877","https://openalex.org/W3183498921","https://openalex.org/W4223642098","https://openalex.org/W4281723282","https://openalex.org/W4289792991","https://openalex.org/W4293238664","https://openalex.org/W4296350429","https://openalex.org/W4296771024","https://openalex.org/W4308447885","https://openalex.org/W4312776557","https://openalex.org/W6677695102"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2167335035","https://openalex.org/W2045615376","https://openalex.org/W2124566234","https://openalex.org/W2158232128","https://openalex.org/W2164713242","https://openalex.org/W2200925278","https://openalex.org/W2763966779","https://openalex.org/W2363371077","https://openalex.org/W2911322627","https://openalex.org/W2744160734"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Video":[0],"streaming-based":[1],"real-time":[2,19,103,110],"vehicle":[3,45,142],"identification":[4,46],"and":[5,14,30,47,70,78,89,116,143,163,197,223,229,241],"license":[6,48,79,86,97,145,164,224],"plate":[7,49,98,146,225],"recognition":[8,50,99,226],"systems":[9],"are":[10],"challenging":[11],"to":[12,74,94,149],"design":[13],"deploy":[15],"in":[16,166,239],"terms":[17],"of":[18,59,84,123,128,139,208,219],"processing":[20,207],"on":[21,56,112,161,179,194,198],"edge,":[22],"dealing":[23],"with":[24,186],"low":[25],"image":[26,68],"resolution,":[27],"high":[28],"noise,":[29],"identification.":[31],"This":[32,232],"paper":[33],"addresses":[34],"these":[35],"issues":[36],"by":[37,120,227],"introducing":[38],"a":[39,57,71,137,180],"novel":[40],"multi-stage,":[41],"real-time,":[42],"deep":[43],"learning-based":[44],"system.":[51],"The":[52,81,106,133,156,189],"system":[53,107,157,214],"is":[54,92],"based":[55],"set":[58],"algorithms":[60],"that":[61,205],"efficiently":[62],"integrate":[63],"two":[64,237],"object":[65],"detectors,":[66],"an":[67],"classifier,":[69],"multi-object":[72],"tracker":[73],"recognize":[75],"car":[76,221],"models":[77],"plates.":[80],"information":[82,127],"redundancy":[83],"Saudi":[85],"plates'":[87],"Arabic":[88],"English":[90],"characters":[91],"leveraged":[93],"boost":[95],"the":[96,124,129,140,150,154,192,195,206,216,220],"accuracy":[100,119,193,218],"while":[101],"satisfying":[102],"inference":[104],"performance.":[105],"optimally":[108],"achieves":[109,176],"performance":[111],"edge":[113,134,184],"GPU":[114],"devices":[115],"maximizes":[117],"models'":[118],"taking":[121],"advantage":[122],"temporally":[125],"redundant":[126],"video":[130,209],"stream's":[131],"frames.":[132],"device":[135,185],"sends":[136],"notification":[138],"detected":[141],"its":[144],"only":[147],"once":[148],"cloud":[151],"after":[152],"completing":[153],"processing.":[155],"was":[158],"experimentally":[159],"evaluated":[160],"vehicles":[162],"plates":[165],"real-world":[167],"unconstrained":[168],"environments":[169],"at":[170],"several":[171],"parking":[172],"entrance":[173],"gates.":[174],"It":[175],"17.1":[177],"FPS":[178],"Jetson":[181],"Xavier":[182],"AGX":[183],"no":[187],"delay.":[188],"comparison":[190],"between":[191],"videos":[196],"static":[199],"images":[200],"extracted":[201],"from":[202],"them":[203],"shows":[204],"streams":[210],"using":[211],"this":[212],"proposed":[213],"enhances":[215],"relative":[217],"model":[222],"13%":[228],"40%,":[230],"respectively.":[231],"research":[233],"work":[234],"has":[235],"won":[236],"awards":[238],"2021":[240],"2022.":[242]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":19},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":12}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}