{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4292183724","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","title":"A Smart Visual Sensing Concept Involving Deep Learning for a Robust Optical Character Recognition under Hard Real-World Conditions","display_name":"A Smart Visual Sensing Concept Involving Deep Learning for a Robust Optical Character Recognition under Hard Real-World Conditions","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-08-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4292183724","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36015785"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s22166025","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/16/6025/pdf?version=1660300379","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/16/6025/pdf?version=1660300379","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067686290","display_name":"Kabeh Mohsenzadegan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210166741","display_name":"University of Klagenfurt","ror":"https://ror.org/05q9m0937","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kabeh Mohsenzadegan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6015-1703","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035234540","display_name":"Vahid Tavakkoli","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210166741","display_name":"University of Klagenfurt","ror":"https://ror.org/05q9m0937","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vahid Tavakkoli","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061137052","display_name":"Kyandoghere Kyamakya","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0773-9476"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210166741","display_name":"University of Klagenfurt","ror":"https://ror.org/05q9m0937","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kyandoghere Kyamakya","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0773-9476","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5067686290"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210166741"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":0.7106,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":8,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.7036051,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"22","issue":"16","first_page":"6025","last_page":"6025"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10601","display_name":"Handwritten Text Recognition Techniques","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10601","display_name":"Handwritten Text Recognition Techniques","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12549","display_name":"Image and Object Detection Techniques","score":0.9955999851226807,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12707","display_name":"Vehicle License Plate Recognition","score":0.9930999875068665,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7921909093856812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optical-character-recognition","display_name":"Optical character recognition","score":0.7894093990325928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7549506425857544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.7265967130661011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distortion","display_name":"Distortion (music)","score":0.6127365231513977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5491034984588623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/shadow","display_name":"Shadow (psychology)","score":0.5228593349456787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/contrast","display_name":"Contrast (vision)","score":0.5076671838760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.4841373860836029},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.48001828789711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/motion-blur","display_name":"Motion blur","score":0.44930416345596313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.4368097186088562},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/perspective-distortion","display_name":"Perspective distortion","score":0.41254380345344543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.3932855725288391}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7921909093856812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C546480517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167555","display_name":"Optical character recognition","level":3,"score":0.7894093990325928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7549506425857544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.7265967130661011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126780896","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899871","display_name":"Distortion (music)","level":4,"score":0.6127365231513977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5491034984588623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117797892","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q286363","display_name":"Shadow (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5228593349456787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776502983","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q690182","display_name":"Contrast (vision)","level":2,"score":0.5076671838760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.4841373860836029},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.48001828789711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777708103","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852589","display_name":"Motion blur","level":3,"score":0.44930416345596313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4368097186088562},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779989122","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15889487","display_name":"Perspective distortion","level":3,"score":0.41254380345344543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.3932855725288391},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776257435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1576430","display_name":"Bandwidth (computing)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C542102704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183257","display_name":"Psychotherapist","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C194257627","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q211554","display_name":"Amplifier","level":3,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000068997","descriptor_name":"Smartphone","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000068997","descriptor_name":"Smartphone","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000068997","descriptor_name":"Smartphone","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D016571","descriptor_name":"Neural Networks, Computer","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D016571","descriptor_name":"Neural Networks, Computer","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D016571","descriptor_name":"Neural Networks, Computer","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s22166025","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/16/6025/pdf?version=1660300379","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:36015785","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36015785","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:560cb14c61d14028bb569137ca39d0c2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/560cb14c61d14028bb569137ca39d0c2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 22, Iss 16, p 6025 (2022)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/22/16/6025/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9414947","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9414947","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s22166025","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166025","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/16/6025/pdf?version=1660300379","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4292183724.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4292183724.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":53,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1521064364","https://openalex.org/W1596717185","https://openalex.org/W1922126009","https://openalex.org/W1971822075","https://openalex.org/W1973492724","https://openalex.org/W1985258161","https://openalex.org/W1985647549","https://openalex.org/W2053317383","https://openalex.org/W2061802763","https://openalex.org/W2068824048","https://openalex.org/W2097616967","https://openalex.org/W2122221966","https://openalex.org/W2135231474","https://openalex.org/W2137718414","https://openalex.org/W2151103935","https://openalex.org/W2158710217","https://openalex.org/W2168809519","https://openalex.org/W2194187530","https://openalex.org/W2343052201","https://openalex.org/W2500127406","https://openalex.org/W2560533888","https://openalex.org/W2593572697","https://openalex.org/W2605076167","https://openalex.org/W2605982830","https://openalex.org/W2784050770","https://openalex.org/W2786148769","https://openalex.org/W2790071740","https://openalex.org/W2793775504","https://openalex.org/W2809273748","https://openalex.org/W2810028092","https://openalex.org/W2810983211","https://openalex.org/W2902494497","https://openalex.org/W2908218113","https://openalex.org/W2914767245","https://openalex.org/W2953606406","https://openalex.org/W2962810613","https://openalex.org/W2963517393","https://openalex.org/W2963647456","https://openalex.org/W2963840241","https://openalex.org/W2964046397","https://openalex.org/W2997924499","https://openalex.org/W2999823539","https://openalex.org/W3004846386","https://openalex.org/W3009080046","https://openalex.org/W3012458836","https://openalex.org/W3019794902","https://openalex.org/W3033633564","https://openalex.org/W3096947210","https://openalex.org/W3102695566","https://openalex.org/W3104467360","https://openalex.org/W6683411478","https://openalex.org/W6734085379","https://openalex.org/W6779399279"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2786887078","https://openalex.org/W3128004133","https://openalex.org/W2800536624","https://openalex.org/W1964182740","https://openalex.org/W2620715523","https://openalex.org/W2564409918","https://openalex.org/W3115594293","https://openalex.org/W2999630082","https://openalex.org/W343952165","https://openalex.org/W3127964174"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"this":[1,89,144],"study,":[2],"we":[3,146],"propose":[4],"a":[5,62,68,150,169,176,196],"new":[6,170,189,227],"model":[7,71,158,191],"for":[8],"optical":[9],"character":[10],"recognition":[11,102,131],"(OCR)":[12],"based":[13],"on":[14],"both":[15],"CNNs":[16],"(convolutional":[17],"neural":[18,23],"networks)":[19],"and":[20,148,153,157,180],"RNNs":[21],"(recurrent":[22],"networks).":[24],"The":[25,188],"distortions":[26,48],"affecting":[27],"the":[28,51,57,163,204],"document":[29,106,200],"image":[30],"can":[31,96,216],"take":[32],"different":[33,114,155,179],"forms,":[34],"such":[35,195],"as":[36],"blur":[37],"(focus":[38],"blur,":[39,41,122],"motion":[40],"etc.),":[42,123],"shadow,":[43],"bad":[44],"contrast,":[45,121],"etc.":[46],"Document-image":[47],"significantly":[49,161],"decrease":[50],"performance":[52,63,103],"of":[53,104,178,184],"OCR":[54,70,101,190,214,229],"systems,":[55],"to":[56,65,174,222],"extent":[58],"that":[59,72,92,129,198,207],"they":[60],"reach":[61],"close":[64],"zero.":[66],"Therefore,":[67,142],"robust":[69],"performs":[73,193],"robustly":[74],"even":[75,199],"under":[76,113],"hard":[77,185],"(distortion)":[78],"conditions":[79,115],"is":[80,126,132],"still":[81],"sorely":[82],"needed.":[83],"However,":[84],"our":[85,226],"comprehensive":[86],"study":[87],"in":[88,138,143,194],"paper":[90],"shows":[91],"various":[93],"related":[94,166],"works":[95],"somewhat":[97],"improve":[98],"their":[99],"respective":[100],"degraded":[105],"images":[107,201],"(e.g.,":[108],"captured":[109],"by":[110,119,212,225],"smartphone":[111],"cameras":[112],"and,":[116],"thus,":[117],"distorted":[118],"shadows,":[120],"but":[124],"it":[125],"worth":[127],"underscoring,":[128],"improved":[130],"neither":[133],"sufficient":[134],"nor":[135],"always":[136],"satisfactory-especially":[137],"very":[139],"harsh":[140],"conditions.":[141,187],"paper,":[145],"suggest":[147],"develop":[149],"much":[151],"better":[152],"fully":[154,218],"approach":[156],"architecture,":[159],"which":[160],"outperforms":[162],"aforementioned":[164],"previous":[165],"works.":[167],"Furthermore,":[168],"dataset":[171],"was":[172],"gathered":[173],"show":[175],"series":[177],"well-representative":[181],"real-world":[182],"scenarios":[183],"distortion":[186],"suggested":[192],"way":[197],"(even":[202],"from":[203],"hardest":[205],"conditions)":[206],"were":[208],"previously":[209],"not":[210],"recognizable":[211],"other":[213],"systems":[215],"be":[217],"recognized":[219],"with":[220],"up":[221],"97.5%":[223],"accuracy/precision":[224],"deep-learning-based":[228],"model.":[230]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-30T09:04:40.226872","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}