{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3164504725","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","title":"A Review of Deep Learning-Based Contactless Heart Rate Measurement Methods","display_name":"A Review of Deep Learning-Based Contactless Heart Rate Measurement Methods","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-05-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3164504725","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","mag":"3164504725","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34071736"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21113719","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/11/3719/pdf?version=1622083925","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"review","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/11/3719/pdf?version=1622083925","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084239772","display_name":"Aoxin Ni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4891-578X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Aoxin Ni","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079917233","display_name":"Arian Azarang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8520-8457"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Arian Azarang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8520-8457","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076371436","display_name":"Nasser Kehtarnavaz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5183-6359"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nasser Kehtarnavaz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5084239772"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":6.8747,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":98,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97960472,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"11","first_page":"3719","last_page":"3719"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10745","display_name":"Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2705","display_name":"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11021","display_name":"ECG Monitoring and Analysis","score":0.9959999918937683,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2705","display_name":"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.7629498243331909},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.596392035484314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5550817251205444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word-error-rate","display_name":"Word error rate","score":0.513386607170105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mean-squared-error","display_name":"Mean squared error","score":0.5043238401412964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/heart-rate","display_name":"Heart rate","score":0.48195645213127136},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.42290377616882324},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.23067697882652283},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.17158621549606323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.16972145438194275}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.7629498243331909},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.596392035484314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5550817251205444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40969351","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3516228","display_name":"Word error rate","level":2,"score":0.513386607170105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139945424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1940696","display_name":"Mean squared error","level":2,"score":0.5043238401412964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777953023","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1073121","display_name":"Heart rate","level":3,"score":0.48195645213127136},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.42290377616882324},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.23067697882652283},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.17158621549606323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.16972145438194275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84393581","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82642","display_name":"Blood pressure","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126838900","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q77604","display_name":"Radiology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006321","descriptor_name":"Heart","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006321","descriptor_name":"Heart","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006321","descriptor_name":"Heart","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006339","descriptor_name":"Heart Rate","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006339","descriptor_name":"Heart Rate","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006339","descriptor_name":"Heart Rate","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012815","descriptor_name":"Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012815","descriptor_name":"Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012815","descriptor_name":"Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017156","descriptor_name":"Photoplethysmography","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017156","descriptor_name":"Photoplethysmography","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017156","descriptor_name":"Photoplethysmography","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21113719","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/11/3719/pdf?version=1622083925","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:34071736","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34071736","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:e4acc5f3878245bf84d6b4a490d5c823","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/e4acc5f3878245bf84d6b4a490d5c823","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 21, Iss 11, p 3719 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/21/11/3719/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 21; Issue 11; Pages: 3719","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:8198867","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8198867","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21113719","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113719","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/11/3719/pdf?version=1622083925","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3164504725.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3164504725.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":104,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W188715143","https://openalex.org/W1466078078","https://openalex.org/W1517245101","https://openalex.org/W1522734439","https://openalex.org/W1528784850","https://openalex.org/W1686810756","https://openalex.org/W1761802751","https://openalex.org/W1984026713","https://openalex.org/W1984554603","https://openalex.org/W1986273245","https://openalex.org/W1986618684","https://openalex.org/W1998294030","https://openalex.org/W2000638024","https://openalex.org/W2003922338","https://openalex.org/W2008821584","https://openalex.org/W2011989160","https://openalex.org/W2018320351","https://openalex.org/W2022174968","https://openalex.org/W2023232389","https://openalex.org/W2026532990","https://openalex.org/W2029745771","https://openalex.org/W2039948765","https://openalex.org/W2046012313","https://openalex.org/W2049449508","https://openalex.org/W2066423735","https://openalex.org/W2069692225","https://openalex.org/W2070638661","https://openalex.org/W2076001533","https://openalex.org/W2078934723","https://openalex.org/W2081719845","https://openalex.org/W2082046021","https://openalex.org/W2083872334","https://openalex.org/W2086248190","https://openalex.org/W2095652584","https://openalex.org/W2103665786","https://openalex.org/W2108911881","https://openalex.org/W2109125512","https://openalex.org/W2111575401","https://openalex.org/W2119615570","https://openalex.org/W2122585011","https://openalex.org/W2124106073","https://openalex.org/W2128585298","https://openalex.org/W2141125852","https://openalex.org/W2162816812","https://openalex.org/W2163605009","https://openalex.org/W2164598857","https://openalex.org/W2184912121","https://openalex.org/W2186331843","https://openalex.org/W2245133670","https://openalex.org/W2292374408","https://openalex.org/W2293634267","https://openalex.org/W2293794671","https://openalex.org/W2317545003","https://openalex.org/W2520824413","https://openalex.org/W2541702601","https://openalex.org/W2559847985","https://openalex.org/W2588878036","https://openalex.org/W2618530766","https://openalex.org/W2738103550","https://openalex.org/W2738968590","https://openalex.org/W2760212863","https://openalex.org/W2766766681","https://openalex.org/W2771521703","https://openalex.org/W2804850800","https://openalex.org/W2893517024","https://openalex.org/W2894833919","https://openalex.org/W2894956427","https://openalex.org/W2898850655","https://openalex.org/W2902449706","https://openalex.org/W2903559293","https://openalex.org/W2910830939","https://openalex.org/W2943541732","https://openalex.org/W2953488857","https://openalex.org/W2962182608","https://openalex.org/W2964796858","https://openalex.org/W2964962925","https://openalex.org/W2970861568","https://openalex.org/W2979437880","https://openalex.org/W2980584869","https://openalex.org/W2980700730","https://openalex.org/W2986906199","https://openalex.org/W2996299673","https://openalex.org/W2998111152","https://openalex.org/W2999926771","https://openalex.org/W3001042480","https://openalex.org/W3013227193","https://openalex.org/W3014415343","https://openalex.org/W3015003552","https://openalex.org/W3021025455","https://openalex.org/W3023858750","https://openalex.org/W3033648091","https://openalex.org/W3035959578","https://openalex.org/W3042432770","https://openalex.org/W3094467096","https://openalex.org/W3095315965","https://openalex.org/W3097599941","https://openalex.org/W3108080438","https://openalex.org/W3118419305","https://openalex.org/W3124198337","https://openalex.org/W3127593363","https://openalex.org/W3132952621","https://openalex.org/W4245509891","https://openalex.org/W6684191040","https://openalex.org/W6726845744"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4375867731","https://openalex.org/W2102148524","https://openalex.org/W2611989081","https://openalex.org/W2314720829","https://openalex.org/W2731899572","https://openalex.org/W4230611425","https://openalex.org/W4294635752","https://openalex.org/W4304166257","https://openalex.org/W4385074335","https://openalex.org/W4380075502"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,75,95],"interest":[1],"in":[2,13,72],"contactless":[3,44],"or":[4],"remote":[5],"heart":[6,47,92,108],"rate":[7,48,93,109],"measurement":[8,110],"has":[9],"been":[10,36],"steadily":[11],"growing":[12],"healthcare":[14],"and":[15,27,126],"sports":[16],"applications.":[17],"Contactless":[18],"methods":[19,34,45,64,90],"involve":[20],"the":[21,40,55,61,84,100,106],"utilization":[22],"of":[23,42,54,60,86,121,132],"a":[24,52,58,116,127],"video":[25],"camera":[26],"image":[28],"processing":[29],"algorithms.":[30],"Recently,":[31],"deep":[32,62,88,101],"learning":[33,63,89,102],"have":[35],"used":[37,81],"to":[38,82],"improve":[39],"performance":[41,85],"conventional":[43],"for":[46,91],"measurement.":[49,94],"After":[50],"providing":[51],"review":[53],"related":[56],"literature,":[57],"comparison":[59],"whose":[65],"codes":[66],"are":[67],"publicly":[68],"available":[69],"is":[70,80],"conducted":[71],"this":[73],"paper.":[74],"public":[76],"domain":[77],"UBFC":[78],"dataset":[79],"compare":[83],"these":[87,113],"results":[96],"obtained":[97],"show":[98],"that":[99],"method":[103],"PhysNet":[104],"generates":[105],"best":[107],"outcome":[111],"among":[112],"methods,":[114],"with":[115],"mean":[117,128],"absolute":[118],"error":[119,130],"value":[120,131],"2.57":[122],"beats":[123,134],"per":[124,135],"minute":[125],"square":[129],"7.56":[133],"minute.":[136]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":21},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":28},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":24},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":8}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
