{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3163682487","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","title":"A Visual and VAE Based Hierarchical Indoor Localization Method","display_name":"A Visual and VAE Based Hierarchical Indoor Localization Method","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-05-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3163682487","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","mag":"3163682487","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34068306"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21103406","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/10/3406/pdf?version=1620910191","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/10/3406/pdf?version=1620910191","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079667048","display_name":"Jie Jiang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9666-815X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jie Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031232283","display_name":"Yin Zou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5717-7187"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yin Zou","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5717-7187","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100718544","display_name":"Lidong Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9683-037X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lidong Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039268641","display_name":"Yujie Fang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8984-8478"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yujie Fang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Systems Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100718544"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"],"apc_list":{"value":2600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":3137},"apc_paid":{"value":2600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":3137},"fwci":3.2084,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9431356,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"10","first_page":"3406","last_page":"3406"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.8220418691635132},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7952914237976074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/autoencoder","display_name":"Autoencoder","score":0.7303621768951416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.6431601047515869},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pose","display_name":"Pose","score":0.5283749103546143},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.4743306040763855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.47108662128448486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-set","display_name":"Data set","score":0.466448038816452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rgb-color-model","display_name":"RGB color model","score":0.4415610730648041},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.4288434386253357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ground-truth","display_name":"Ground truth","score":0.42218101024627686},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.3545404374599457}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.8220418691635132},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7952914237976074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101738243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786435","display_name":"Autoencoder","level":3,"score":0.7303621768951416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.6431601047515869},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52102323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1671968","display_name":"Pose","level":2,"score":0.5283749103546143},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.4743306040763855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.47108662128448486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58489278","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172284","display_name":"Data set","level":2,"score":0.466448038816452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82990744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166194","display_name":"RGB color model","level":2,"score":0.4415610730648041},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.4288434386253357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146849305","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370766","display_name":"Ground truth","level":2,"score":0.42218101024627686},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3545404374599457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21103406","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/10/3406/pdf?version=1620910191","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:34068306","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34068306","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:8153307","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8153307","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:e58c0f27838e45ee8e764d54ae52661e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/e58c0f27838e45ee8e764d54ae52661e","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 21, Iss 10, p 3406 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/21/10/3406/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 21; Issue 10; Pages: 3406","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21103406","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21103406","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/10/3406/pdf?version=1620910191","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3163682487.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3163682487.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":70,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W612478963","https://openalex.org/W1552672384","https://openalex.org/W1565312575","https://openalex.org/W1612997784","https://openalex.org/W1821462560","https://openalex.org/W1989476314","https://openalex.org/W1989484209","https://openalex.org/W2012592962","https://openalex.org/W2042012041","https://openalex.org/W2073761981","https://openalex.org/W2128017662","https://openalex.org/W2151103935","https://openalex.org/W2187089797","https://openalex.org/W2200124539","https://openalex.org/W2210838531","https://openalex.org/W2431962807","https://openalex.org/W2460055519","https://openalex.org/W2471962767","https://openalex.org/W2499468060","https://openalex.org/W2519683295","https://openalex.org/W2522940611","https://openalex.org/W2530742177","https://openalex.org/W2556455135","https://openalex.org/W2584565614","https://openalex.org/W2607595839","https://openalex.org/W2620629206","https://openalex.org/W2730106296","https://openalex.org/W2739492061","https://openalex.org/W2743901700","https://openalex.org/W2745839262","https://openalex.org/W2766979850","https://openalex.org/W2794547121","https://openalex.org/W2798952332","https://openalex.org/W2884692898","https://openalex.org/W2889728808","https://openalex.org/W2892865870","https://openalex.org/W2922243907","https://openalex.org/W2948604360","https://openalex.org/W2948978827","https://openalex.org/W2949481740","https://openalex.org/W2949845221","https://openalex.org/W2951004968","https://openalex.org/W2951019013","https://openalex.org/W2951336016","https://openalex.org/W2952006246","https://openalex.org/W2952508194","https://openalex.org/W2962705366","https://openalex.org/W2963210849","https://openalex.org/W2963223306","https://openalex.org/W2963324085","https://openalex.org/W2963523575","https://openalex.org/W2963856988","https://openalex.org/W2964157791","https://openalex.org/W2964175348","https://openalex.org/W2966574105","https://openalex.org/W2969485038","https://openalex.org/W2973689592","https://openalex.org/W2973976116","https://openalex.org/W2983134350","https://openalex.org/W3003449356","https://openalex.org/W3006739980","https://openalex.org/W3016253243","https://openalex.org/W3096628760","https://openalex.org/W3103543904","https://openalex.org/W3103648783","https://openalex.org/W4285719527","https://openalex.org/W4287367114","https://openalex.org/W6679055200","https://openalex.org/W6733040932","https://openalex.org/W6775309665"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3013693939","https://openalex.org/W2159052453","https://openalex.org/W2566616303","https://openalex.org/W3131327266","https://openalex.org/W2734887215","https://openalex.org/W4297051394","https://openalex.org/W3102673927","https://openalex.org/W2327954668","https://openalex.org/W4294967731","https://openalex.org/W4223555864"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Precise":[0],"localization":[1,33,93,119,169],"and":[2,21,23,56,78,114,142,155,175,190,197,202],"pose":[3,149],"estimation":[4],"in":[5,11,41,54,109,136,192,204],"indoor":[6,92],"environments":[7],"are":[8,123,143,161],"commonly":[9],"employed":[10],"a":[12,35,104,214],"wide":[13],"range":[14],"of":[15,63,82,132,166],"applications,":[16],"including":[17],"robotics,":[18],"augmented":[19],"reality,":[20],"navigation":[22],"positioning":[24],"services.":[25],"Such":[26],"applications":[27],"can":[28,48,184],"be":[29,49],"solved":[30],"via":[31],"visual-based":[32,105],"using":[34],"pre-built":[36],"3D":[37],"model.":[38],"The":[39,61],"increase":[40,74],"searching":[42],"space":[43],"associated":[44],"with":[45,103],"large":[46],"scenes":[47],"overcome":[50],"by":[51],"retrieving":[52],"images":[53,159,186],"advance":[55],"subsequently":[57,144],"estimating":[58],"the":[59,80,118,126,130,133,148,164,167,181,193,205],"pose.":[60],"majority":[62],"current":[64],"deep":[65],"learning-based":[66],"image":[67,127],"retrieval":[68,128],"methods":[69],"require":[70],"labeled":[71],"data,":[72],"which":[73,171],"data":[75,195,207],"annotation":[76],"costs":[77],"complicate":[79],"acquisition":[81],"data.":[83],"In":[84],"this":[85],"paper,":[86],"we":[87],"propose":[88],"an":[89,97],"unsupervised":[90,98],"hierarchical":[91],"framework":[94],"that":[95,180],"integrates":[96],"network":[99],"variational":[100],"autoencoder":[101],"(VAE)":[102],"Structure-from-Motion":[106],"(SfM)":[107],"approach":[108],"order":[110,137],"to":[111,138,146,218],"extract":[112],"global":[113,121],"local":[115],"features.":[116],"During":[117],"process,":[120],"features":[122],"applied":[124],"for":[125],"at":[129],"level":[131],"scene":[134],"map":[135],"obtain":[139],"candidate":[140,156],"images,":[141],"used":[145,162],"estimate":[147],"from":[150],"2D-3D":[151],"matches":[152],"between":[153],"query":[154],"images.":[157],"RGB":[158],"only":[160],"as":[163],"input":[165],"proposed":[168,182,211],"system,":[170],"is":[172],"both":[173],"convenient":[174],"challenging.":[176],"Experimental":[177],"results":[178],"reveal":[179],"method":[183,212],"localize":[185],"within":[187,199],"0.16":[188],"m":[189,201],"4\u00b0":[191],"7-Scenes":[194],"sets":[196],"32.8%":[198],"5":[200],"20\u00b0":[203],"Baidu":[206],"set.":[208],"Furthermore,":[209],"our":[210],"achieves":[213],"higher":[215],"precision":[216],"compared":[217],"advanced":[219],"methods.":[220]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}