{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3138688069","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","title":"Traffic Signal Control Using Hybrid Action Space Deep Reinforcement Learning","display_name":"Traffic Signal Control Using Hybrid Action Space Deep Reinforcement Learning","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-03-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3138688069","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","mag":"3138688069","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33806123"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21072302","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/7/2302/pdf?version=1616676551","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/7/2302/pdf?version=1616676551","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030284249","display_name":"Salah Bouktif","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5846-9897"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201726411","display_name":"United Arab Emirates University","ror":"https://ror.org/01km6p862","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201726411"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Salah Bouktif","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering, University of United Arab Emirates, Al Ain 15551, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5846-9897","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering, University of United Arab Emirates, Al Ain 15551, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201726411"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085781301","display_name":"Abderraouf Cheniki","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3288-4344"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3121272148","display_name":"University of Boumerdes","ror":"https://ror.org/02dveg925","country_code":"DZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3121272148"]}],"countries":["DZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Abderraouf Cheniki","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Boumerdes, Boumerd\u00e8s 35000, Algeria"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3288-4344","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Boumerdes, Boumerd\u00e8s 35000, Algeria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3121272148"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090942200","display_name":"Ali Ouni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4708-0362"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159129438","display_name":"Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Montr\u00e9al","ror":"https://ror.org/002rjbv21","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159129438","https://openalex.org/I49663120"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9736820","display_name":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure","ror":"https://ror.org/0020snb74","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I49663120","https://openalex.org/I9736820"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ali Ouni","raw_affiliation_strings":["\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, University of Quebec, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"\u00c9cole de Technologie Sup\u00e9rieure, University of Quebec, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159129438","https://openalex.org/I9736820"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5030284249"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201726411"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"fwci":4.5551,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":59,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95433724,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"7","first_page":"2302","last_page":"2302"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10524","display_name":"Traffic control and management","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10524","display_name":"Traffic control and management","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11344","display_name":"Traffic Prediction and Management Techniques","score":0.996399998664856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2215","display_name":"Building and Construction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.9840999841690063,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.8677692413330078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.649563193321228},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/signal","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","score":0.6249685883522034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/queue","display_name":"Queue","score":0.5222324132919312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/duration","display_name":"Duration (music)","score":0.4827241599559784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.44363290071487427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.44185173511505127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.4334612488746643},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.43237441778182983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-signal","display_name":"Traffic signal","score":0.4261268675327301},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.38207390904426575},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.12570354342460632}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.8677692413330078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.649563193321228},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779843651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7390335","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.6249685883522034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160403385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220543","display_name":"Queue","level":2,"score":0.5222324132919312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112758219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16038819","display_name":"Duration (music)","level":2,"score":0.4827241599559784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.44363290071487427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.44185173511505127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.4334612488746643},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.43237441778182983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987419075","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8004","display_name":"Traffic signal","level":2,"score":0.4261268675327301},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.38207390904426575},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.12570354342460632},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124952713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8242","display_name":"Literature","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142362112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735","display_name":"Art","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":6,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21072302","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/7/2302/pdf?version=1616676551","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33806123","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33806123","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:59001efee2474721b816b4040517fbf1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/59001efee2474721b816b4040517fbf1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 21, Iss 7, p 2302 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:espace2.etsmtl.ca:22426","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://espace2.etsmtl.ca/id/eprint/22426/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402392","display_name":"Espace \u00c9TS (ETS)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1341030882","host_organization_name":"Educational Testing Service","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1341030882"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article publi\u00e9 dans une revue, r\u00e9vis\u00e9 par les pairs"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/21/7/2302/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 21; Issue 7; Pages: 2302","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:8037422","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8037422","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21072302","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072302","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/7/2302/pdf?version=1616676551","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities","score":0.7599999904632568,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5780759157","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"AQRE18-114","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329011","funder_display_name":"Department of Education and Knowledge"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329011","display_name":"Department of Education and Knowledge","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3138688069.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":26,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1757796397","https://openalex.org/W2145339207","https://openalex.org/W2173564293","https://openalex.org/W2256420211","https://openalex.org/W2746553466","https://openalex.org/W2781726626","https://openalex.org/W2809148419","https://openalex.org/W2897417898","https://openalex.org/W2902021809","https://openalex.org/W2917857154","https://openalex.org/W2944306386","https://openalex.org/W2950471160","https://openalex.org/W2952523895","https://openalex.org/W2956256673","https://openalex.org/W2963864421","https://openalex.org/W2964043796","https://openalex.org/W2964749398","https://openalex.org/W2965780048","https://openalex.org/W2969281871","https://openalex.org/W2989915408","https://openalex.org/W3035721219","https://openalex.org/W3044015199","https://openalex.org/W3048206271","https://openalex.org/W6600981286","https://openalex.org/W6748837421","https://openalex.org/W6765257018"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4367838498","https://openalex.org/W2393348402","https://openalex.org/W4293167677","https://openalex.org/W2242021741","https://openalex.org/W2377015873","https://openalex.org/W2605253768","https://openalex.org/W3112320434","https://openalex.org/W1972744883","https://openalex.org/W3021400905","https://openalex.org/W2392201083"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"research":[1],"works":[2],"on":[3,13],"intelligent":[4],"traffic":[5,27,47,100,164],"signal":[6,28,69],"control":[7,29,59],"(TSC)":[8],"have":[9],"been":[10],"mainly":[11],"focused":[12],"leveraging":[14],"deep":[15],"reinforcement":[16],"learning":[17],"(DRL)":[18],"due":[19],"to":[20,32,110,198],"its":[21,122,171,188],"proven":[22],"capability":[23],"and":[24,94,121,142,168,206,213],"performance.":[25],"DRL-based":[26,219],"frameworks":[30],"belong":[31],"either":[33],"discrete":[34,39,93,141],"or":[35],"continuous":[36,58,95,143],"controls.":[37],"In":[38],"control,":[40],"the":[41,45,61,64,78,118,138,163,172,191,200,207,217],"DRL":[42,96],"agent":[43,62],"selects":[44],"appropriate":[46,65],"light":[48,165],"phase":[49,70,120],"from":[50],"a":[51,72,88,130,148,156],"finite":[52],"set":[53],"of":[54,75,115,178,183,204],"phases.":[55,76],"Whereas":[56],"in":[57,98,106,128],"approach,":[60],"decides":[63,162],"duration":[66],"for":[67],"each":[68],"within":[71],"predetermined":[73],"sequence":[74],"Among":[77],"existing":[79],"works,":[80],"there":[81],"are":[82],"no":[83],"prior":[84],"approaches":[85,97],"that":[86,135,154,160],"propose":[87,111],"flexible":[89],"framework":[90,195],"combining":[91],"both":[92],"controlling":[99],"signal.":[101],"Thus,":[102],"our":[103,179],"ultimate":[104],"objective":[105],"this":[107],"paper":[108],"is":[109,196],"an":[112],"approach":[113,180],"capable":[114],"deciding":[116],"simultaneously":[117],"proper":[119],"associated":[123,173],"duration.":[124],"Our":[125],"contribution":[126],"resides":[127],"adapting":[129],"hybrid":[131],"Deep":[132,150],"Reinforcement":[133],"Learning":[134],"considers":[136],"at":[137],"same":[139],"time":[140,210],"decisions.":[144],"Precisely,":[145],"we":[146],"customize":[147],"Parameterized":[149],"Q-Networks":[151],"(P-DQN)":[152],"architecture":[153],"permits":[155],"hierarchical":[157],"decision-making":[158],"process":[159],"primarily":[161],"next":[166],"phases":[167],"secondly":[169],"specifies":[170],"timing.":[174],"The":[175,193],"evaluation":[176],"results":[177],"using":[181],"Simulation":[182],"Urban":[184],"MObility":[185],"(SUMO)":[186],"shows":[187],"out-performance":[189],"over":[190,216],"benchmarks.":[192],"proposed":[194],"able":[197],"reduce":[199],"average":[201,208],"queue":[202],"length":[203],"vehicles":[205],"travel":[209],"by":[211],"22.20%":[212],"5.78%,":[214],"respectively,":[215],"alternative":[218],"TSC":[220],"systems.":[221]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}