{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3135494293","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","title":"RF-Based UAV Detection and Identification Using Hierarchical Learning Approach","display_name":"RF-Based UAV Detection and Identification Using Hierarchical Learning Approach","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-03-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3135494293","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","mag":"3135494293","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33802189"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21061947","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/6/1947/pdf?version=1615971802","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/6/1947/pdf?version=1615971802","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046090434","display_name":"Ibrahim A. Nemer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3712-3405"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ibrahim Nemer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3712-3405","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5057035512","display_name":"Tarek Sheltami","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7879-1469"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tarek Sheltami","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7879-1469","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070341092","display_name":"Irfan Ahmad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8311-1731"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Irfan Ahmad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information and Computer Science, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8311-1731","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information and Computer Science, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080750168","display_name":"Ansar-Ul-Haque Yasar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1542-2658"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I878454856","display_name":"Hasselt University","ror":"https://ror.org/04nbhqj75","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I878454856"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ansar Ul-Haque Yasar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Transportation Research Institute, Hasselt University, BE3500 Hasselt, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Transportation Research Institute, Hasselt University, BE3500 Hasselt, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I878454856"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024724875","display_name":"M. Abdeen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9326-8409"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210151290","display_name":"Islamic University of Madinah","ror":"https://ror.org/03rcp1y74","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210151290"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad A. R. Abdeen","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Faculty of Computer and Information Systems, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah 42351, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9326-8409","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Faculty of Computer and Information Systems, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah 42351, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210151290"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5046090434"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":92.2294,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":122,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9992873,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"21","issue":"6","first_page":"1947","last_page":"1947"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11133","display_name":"UAV Applications and Optimization","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11133","display_name":"UAV Applications and Optimization","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10331","display_name":"Video Surveillance and Tracking Methods","score":0.9927999973297119,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6835871934890747},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.6707862615585327},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6005354523658752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.528704047203064},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.5018606185913086},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"Random forest","score":0.43149763345718384},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-extraction","display_name":"Feature extraction","score":0.42474332451820374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.3583035171031952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.3374064564704895}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6835871934890747},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.6707862615585327},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6005354523658752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.528704047203064},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5018606185913086},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.43149763345718384},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.42474332451820374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3583035171031952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.3374064564704895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":6,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21061947","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/6/1947/pdf?version=1615971802","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33802189","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33802189","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:5ce6301eaeac4c1e9e0a501e7160c51b","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/5ce6301eaeac4c1e9e0a501e7160c51b","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 21, Iss 6, p 1947 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:documentserver.uhasselt.be:1942/34849","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/1942/34849","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401926","display_name":"Document Server@UHasselt (UHasselt)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I878454856","host_organization_name":"Hasselt University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I878454856"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/21/6/1947/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 21; Issue 6; Pages: 1947","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:8000890","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8000890","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s21061947","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s21061947","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/6/1947/pdf?version=1615971802","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Zero hunger","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/2","score":0.7599999904632568}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3135494293.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3135494293.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":37,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W66714450","https://openalex.org/W1534477342","https://openalex.org/W1584308190","https://openalex.org/W1998943389","https://openalex.org/W2004430076","https://openalex.org/W2069209512","https://openalex.org/W2093003948","https://openalex.org/W2101234009","https://openalex.org/W2129018774","https://openalex.org/W2464322612","https://openalex.org/W2512695020","https://openalex.org/W2538045403","https://openalex.org/W2566527471","https://openalex.org/W2599474019","https://openalex.org/W2610812060","https://openalex.org/W2733028281","https://openalex.org/W2789453091","https://openalex.org/W2792459142","https://openalex.org/W2792652625","https://openalex.org/W2799134332","https://openalex.org/W2895257011","https://openalex.org/W2909294258","https://openalex.org/W2913181529","https://openalex.org/W2944086006","https://openalex.org/W2951326694","https://openalex.org/W2962680212","https://openalex.org/W2964138953","https://openalex.org/W2964345399","https://openalex.org/W2970731346","https://openalex.org/W2994635693","https://openalex.org/W2999467118","https://openalex.org/W3024044210","https://openalex.org/W3025220697","https://openalex.org/W3048658198","https://openalex.org/W3216283721","https://openalex.org/W4213147678","https://openalex.org/W6675354045"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3193043704","https://openalex.org/W4386259002","https://openalex.org/W1546989560","https://openalex.org/W3171520305","https://openalex.org/W1924178503","https://openalex.org/W4308716060","https://openalex.org/W4280648719","https://openalex.org/W3135126032","https://openalex.org/W4386937079","https://openalex.org/W2889302474"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Unmanned":[0],"Aerial":[1],"Vehicles":[2],"(UAVs)":[3],"are":[4,123],"widely":[5],"available":[6,184],"in":[7,107,125,194],"the":[8,41,84,95,104,108,113,133,138,141,148,151,155,164,179,195,199,209,218,224,228],"current":[9],"market":[10],"to":[11,21,111,136,169,173,190,201],"be":[12],"used":[13],"either":[14],"for":[15,61,94],"recreation":[16],"as":[17,27,50],"a":[18,51,57,126,204],"hobby":[19],"or":[20,211],"serve":[22],"specific":[23],"industrial":[24],"requirements,":[25],"such":[26],"agriculture":[28],"and":[29,33,48,64,73,90,121,143,171,213,222],"construction.":[30],"However,":[31],"illegitimate":[32],"criminal":[34],"usage":[35],"of":[36,66,118,140,150,178,220,227],"UAVs":[37],"is":[38,76,101,167,206],"also":[39],"on":[40,83,103],"rise":[42],"which":[43],"introduces":[44],"their":[45,175],"effective":[46],"identification":[47,63,72],"detection":[49,65,74,109,192],"research":[52],"challenge.":[53],"This":[54,115],"paper":[55],"proposes":[56],"novel":[58],"machine":[59],"learning-based":[60],"efficient":[62],"UAVs.":[67],"Specifically,":[68],"an":[69,79],"improved":[70],"UAV":[71,153,205,221,230],"approach":[75,110,116,181],"presented":[77],"using":[78,154],"ensemble":[80],"learning":[81],"based":[82],"hierarchical":[85,127],"concept,":[86],"along":[87],"with":[88,182,231],"pre-processing":[89],"feature":[91],"extraction":[92],"stages":[93],"Radio":[96],"Frequency":[97],"(RF)":[98],"data.":[99],"Filtering":[100],"applied":[102],"RF":[105],"signals":[106],"improve":[112],"output.":[114],"consists":[117],"four":[119],"classifiers":[120,161],"they":[122],"working":[124],"way.":[128],"The":[129,158],"sample":[130,165],"will":[131,146,162],"pass":[132],"first":[134],"classifier":[135],"check":[137],"availability":[139],"UAV,":[142],"then":[144,223],"it":[145,214],"specify":[147,174],"type":[149,219],"detected":[152,229],"second":[156],"classifier.":[157],"last":[159],"two":[160],"handle":[163],"that":[166],"related":[168],"Bebop":[170],"AR":[172],"mode.":[176],"Evaluation":[177],"proposed":[180],"publicly":[183],"dataset":[185],"demonstrates":[186],"better":[187],"efficiency":[188],"compared":[189],"existing":[191],"systems":[193],"literature.":[196],"It":[197],"has":[198],"ability":[200],"investigate":[202],"whether":[203],"flying":[207],"within":[208],"area":[210],"not,":[212],"can":[215],"directly":[216],"identify":[217],"flight":[225],"mode":[226],"accuracy":[232],"around":[233],"99%.":[234]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":27},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":34},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":17},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":24},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":9}],"updated_date":"2026-06-10T14:10:52.464848","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}