{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3102515035","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","title":"Spatio-Temporal Scale Coded Bag-of-Words","display_name":"Spatio-Temporal Scale Coded Bag-of-Words","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-11-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3102515035","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","mag":"3102515035","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33182276"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20216380","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/21/6380/pdf?version=1604910936","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/21/6380/pdf?version=1604910936","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049116084","display_name":"D Govender","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2226-1554"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I95023434","display_name":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","ror":"https://ror.org/04qzfn040","country_code":"ZA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I95023434"]}],"countries":["ZA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Divina Govender","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2226-1554","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95023434"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5004946956","display_name":"Jules\u2010Raymond Tapamo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5915-0511"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I95023434","display_name":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","ror":"https://ror.org/04qzfn040","country_code":"ZA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I95023434"]}],"countries":["ZA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jules-Raymond Tapamo","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5915-0511","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95023434"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5004946956"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95023434"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2673},"fwci":0.1925,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.50324224,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":95},"biblio":{"volume":"20","issue":"21","first_page":"6380","last_page":"6380"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10812","display_name":"Human Pose and Action Recognition","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10812","display_name":"Human Pose and Action Recognition","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11398","display_name":"Hand Gesture Recognition Systems","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11512","display_name":"Anomaly Detection Techniques and Applications","score":0.9954000115394592,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bag-of-words-model","display_name":"Bag-of-words model","score":0.8168424963951111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6688752174377441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trajectory","display_name":"Trajectory","score":0.5857871770858765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.5641409158706665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coding","display_name":"Coding (social sciences)","score":0.5507972836494446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pipeline","display_name":"Pipeline (software)","score":0.543363094329834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.541757345199585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.5392293930053711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.5287384986877441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encoding","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","score":0.5019207000732422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bag-of-words-model-in-computer-vision","display_name":"Bag-of-words model in computer vision","score":0.4769288897514343},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/representation","display_name":"Representation (politics)","score":0.44077226519584656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bow-tie","display_name":"Bow tie","score":0.440030038356781},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.25804364681243896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visual-word","display_name":"Visual Word","score":0.2049766480922699},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.15024515986442566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image-retrieval","display_name":"Image retrieval","score":0.12676358222961426}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13672336","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3460803","display_name":"Bag-of-words model","level":2,"score":0.8168424963951111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6688752174377441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13662910","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193139","display_name":"Trajectory","level":2,"score":0.5857871770858765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5641409158706665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179518139","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5140297","display_name":"Coding (social sciences)","level":2,"score":0.5507972836494446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43521106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2165493","display_name":"Pipeline (software)","level":2,"score":0.543363094329834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.541757345199585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.5392293930053711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.5287384986877441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.5019207000732422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167611913","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6884747","display_name":"Bag-of-words model in computer vision","level":5,"score":0.4769288897514343},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776359362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2145286","display_name":"Representation (politics)","level":3,"score":0.44077226519584656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777652565","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4950686","display_name":"Bow tie","level":3,"score":0.440030038356781},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.25804364681243896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189391414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7936579","display_name":"Visual Word","level":4,"score":0.2049766480922699},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.15024515986442566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1667742","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10927554","display_name":"Image retrieval","level":3,"score":0.12676358222961426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1276947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333","display_name":"Astronomy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21822782","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131214","display_name":"Antenna (radio)","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20216380","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/21/6380/pdf?version=1604910936","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33182276","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33182276","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:7664889","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7664889","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:19c31912e6a746e0a6bdbfd112600480","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/19c31912e6a746e0a6bdbfd112600480","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 20, Iss 21, p 6380 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/20/21/6380/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors; Volume 20; Issue 21; Pages: 6380","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20216380","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216380","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/21/6380/pdf?version=1604910936","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3102515035.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3102515035.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":64,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W28988658","https://openalex.org/W1524121070","https://openalex.org/W1534763723","https://openalex.org/W1755205674","https://openalex.org/W1871385855","https://openalex.org/W1964846093","https://openalex.org/W1965838475","https://openalex.org/W1966385142","https://openalex.org/W1979931042","https://openalex.org/W1997121481","https://openalex.org/W2016053056","https://openalex.org/W2020163092","https://openalex.org/W2024868105","https://openalex.org/W2068611653","https://openalex.org/W2071441574","https://openalex.org/W2100233488","https://openalex.org/W2102605133","https://openalex.org/W2105101328","https://openalex.org/W2108333036","https://openalex.org/W2109761267","https://openalex.org/W2112020727","https://openalex.org/W2116084929","https://openalex.org/W2126574503","https://openalex.org/W2126579184","https://openalex.org/W2132311402","https://openalex.org/W2142194269","https://openalex.org/W2151350425","https://openalex.org/W2152705230","https://openalex.org/W2154889144","https://openalex.org/W2156303437","https://openalex.org/W2162915993","https://openalex.org/W2168356304","https://openalex.org/W2168951883","https://openalex.org/W2171896402","https://openalex.org/W2308045930","https://openalex.org/W2342662179","https://openalex.org/W2550155684","https://openalex.org/W2580164915","https://openalex.org/W2769531763","https://openalex.org/W2781844440","https://openalex.org/W2782776028","https://openalex.org/W2794375520","https://openalex.org/W2796347433","https://openalex.org/W2807959692","https://openalex.org/W2892933850","https://openalex.org/W2895520659","https://openalex.org/W2902904290","https://openalex.org/W2930935951","https://openalex.org/W2952186347","https://openalex.org/W2953084276","https://openalex.org/W2963037989","https://openalex.org/W2963828468","https://openalex.org/W2966078099","https://openalex.org/W2982198876","https://openalex.org/W3004473259","https://openalex.org/W3013293678","https://openalex.org/W3091552207","https://openalex.org/W3100395108","https://openalex.org/W4244165801","https://openalex.org/W4249279051","https://openalex.org/W6631331793","https://openalex.org/W6679388247","https://openalex.org/W6754529245","https://openalex.org/W6761301352"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2391617560","https://openalex.org/W3000274722","https://openalex.org/W1615295117","https://openalex.org/W2053721431","https://openalex.org/W2965904543","https://openalex.org/W2375570899","https://openalex.org/W3003905580","https://openalex.org/W2202427542","https://openalex.org/W2035094092","https://openalex.org/W3201881464"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"Bag-of-Words":[1],"(BoW)":[2],"framework":[3,27],"has":[4],"been":[5,23],"widely":[6],"used":[7],"in":[8,36,92],"action":[9,105],"recognition":[10,106],"tasks":[11],"due":[12],"to":[13,25,28,102,124],"its":[14,30],"compact":[15],"and":[16,40,152],"efficient":[17],"feature":[18,118],"representation.":[19],"Various":[20],"modifications":[21],"have":[22],"made":[24],"this":[26],"increase":[29],"classification":[31,158],"power.":[32],"This":[33,64],"often":[34],"results":[35],"an":[37],"increased":[38],"complexity":[39],"reduced":[41],"efficiency.":[42,166],"Inspired":[43],"by":[44,73,128],"the":[45,81,114,161],"success":[46],"of":[47,160],"image-based":[48],"scale":[49,57,83,147],"coded":[50,58],"BoW":[51,59,71,163],"representations,":[52],"we":[53,110],"propose":[54],"a":[55,99,150],"spatio-temporal":[56,75],"(SC-BoW)":[60],"for":[61],"video-based":[62],"recognition.":[63],"involves":[65],"encoding":[66,154],"extracted":[67],"multi-scale":[68],"information":[69],"into":[70,77],"representations":[72,123],"partitioning":[74],"features":[76],"sub-groups":[78],"based":[79],"on":[80,137],"spatial":[82],"from":[84],"which":[85],"they":[86],"were":[87],"extracted.":[88],"We":[89,96],"evaluate":[90],"SC-BoW":[91,112,122,136],"two":[93],"experimental":[94],"setups.":[95],"first":[97],"present":[98],"general":[100],"pipeline":[101],"perform":[103],"real-time":[104],"with":[107,130],"SC-BoW.":[108],"Secondly,":[109],"apply":[111],"onto":[113],"popular":[115],"Dense":[116,138],"Trajectory":[117],"set.":[119],"Results":[120],"showed":[121],"successfully":[125],"improve":[126],"performance":[127],"2-7%":[129],"low":[131],"added":[132],"computational":[133],"cost.":[134],"Notably,":[135],"Trajectories":[139],"outperformed":[140],"more":[141],"complex":[142],"deep":[143],"learning":[144],"approaches.":[145],"Thus,":[146],"coding":[148],"is":[149],"low-cost":[151],"low-level":[153],"scheme":[155],"that":[156],"increases":[157],"power":[159],"standard":[162],"without":[164],"compromising":[165]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-11T07:18:39.950985","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}