{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3040625097","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","title":"Pupil Localisation and Eye Centre Estimation Using Machine Learning and Computer Vision","display_name":"Pupil Localisation and Eye Centre Estimation Using Machine Learning and Computer Vision","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-07-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3040625097","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","mag":"3040625097","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32640589"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20133785","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/13/3785/pdf?version=1594785762","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/13/3785/pdf?version=1594785762","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076048170","display_name":"Wasiq Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7511-3873"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63098007","display_name":"Liverpool John Moores University","ror":"https://ror.org/04zfme737","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Wasiq Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L33AF, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7511-3873","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L33AF, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025789067","display_name":"Abir Hussain","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8413-0045"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63098007","display_name":"Liverpool John Moores University","ror":"https://ror.org/04zfme737","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Abir Hussain","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L33AF, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8413-0045","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L33AF, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067503334","display_name":"Kaya Kuru","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4279-4166"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185852735","display_name":"University of Lancashire","ror":"https://ror.org/010jbqd54","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185852735"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kaya Kuru","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR12HE, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4279-4166","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR12HE, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185852735"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053123637","display_name":"Haya Alaskar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1688-0669"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142608572","display_name":"Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University","ror":"https://ror.org/04jt46d36","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haya Al-askar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Science Department, College of Engineering and Computer Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1688-0669","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Science Department, College of Engineering and Computer Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5076048170"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":4.0167,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":39,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94024669,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"20","issue":"13","first_page":"3785","last_page":"3785"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10250","display_name":"Glaucoma and retinal disorders","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2731","display_name":"Ophthalmology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10997","display_name":"Ocular Surface and Contact Lens","score":0.9487000107765198,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2739","display_name":"Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8060279488563538},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7856022119522095},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.6390658020973206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pupil","display_name":"Pupil","score":0.5806272625923157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metric","display_name":"Metric (unit)","score":0.4523013234138489},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/silhouette","display_name":"Silhouette","score":0.4469067454338074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.4459993541240692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.4446714520454407},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/landmark","display_name":"Landmark","score":0.4438523054122925},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image-processing","display_name":"Image processing","score":0.4266549348831177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.4199150800704956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/profiling","display_name":"Profiling (computer programming)","score":0.4173886179924011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/leverage","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","score":0.4137447774410248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.2863518297672272}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8060279488563538},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7856022119522095},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.6390658020973206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777394604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173318","display_name":"Pupil","level":2,"score":0.5806272625923157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176217482","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860554","display_name":"Metric (unit)","level":2,"score":0.4523013234138489},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58103923","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2286025","display_name":"Silhouette","level":2,"score":0.4469067454338074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4459993541240692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.4446714520454407},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780297707","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4895393","display_name":"Landmark","level":2,"score":0.4438523054122925},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9417928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689","display_name":"Image processing","level":3,"score":0.4266549348831177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4199150800704956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187191949","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1138496","display_name":"Profiling (computer programming)","level":2,"score":0.4173886179924011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153083717","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6535263","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.4137447774410248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2863518297672272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21547014","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1423657","display_name":"Operations management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000069550","descriptor_name":"Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069550","descriptor_name":"Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069550","descriptor_name":"Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D003201","descriptor_name":"Computers","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003201","descriptor_name":"Computers","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D003201","descriptor_name":"Computers","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011680","descriptor_name":"Pupil","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D011680","descriptor_name":"Pupil","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D011680","descriptor_name":"Pupil","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D015203","descriptor_name":"Reproducibility of Results","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D015203","descriptor_name":"Reproducibility of Results","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D015203","descriptor_name":"Reproducibility of Results","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20133785","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/13/3785/pdf?version=1594785762","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:32640589","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32640589","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:clok.uclan.ac.uk:33938","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7511-3873>,","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402361","display_name":"CLOK (University of Central Lancashire)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I185852735","host_organization_name":"University of Lancashire","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185852735"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"PeerReviewed"},{"id":"pmh:oai:researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk:13258","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401246","display_name":"Liverpool John Moores University","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I63098007","host_organization_name":"Liverpool John Moores University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63098007"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:a84b599b9ea34c66a045d1b3ca079eae","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/a84b599b9ea34c66a045d1b3ca079eae","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 20, Iss 13, p 3785 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/20/13/3785/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:7374404","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7374404","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s20133785","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133785","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/13/3785/pdf?version=1594785762","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2607947666","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2020/01/1174.","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320311227","funder_display_name":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4127556378","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2020/01/1174","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320311227","funder_display_name":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320311227","display_name":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","ror":"https://ror.org/04jt46d36"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3040625097.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3040625097.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":50,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1240050456","https://openalex.org/W1511797856","https://openalex.org/W1855869282","https://openalex.org/W1963841851","https://openalex.org/W1975647954","https://openalex.org/W2008999667","https://openalex.org/W2013729144","https://openalex.org/W2014877585","https://openalex.org/W2018469219","https://openalex.org/W2025097380","https://openalex.org/W2040336280","https://openalex.org/W2046399019","https://openalex.org/W2077447228","https://openalex.org/W2084120575","https://openalex.org/W2094539281","https://openalex.org/W2098947662","https://openalex.org/W2107956149","https://openalex.org/W2108045700","https://openalex.org/W2108054537","https://openalex.org/W2112027574","https://openalex.org/W2115252128","https://openalex.org/W2137068475","https://openalex.org/W2147056439","https://openalex.org/W2161782031","https://openalex.org/W2164969442","https://openalex.org/W2167020116","https://openalex.org/W2168680772","https://openalex.org/W2169837008","https://openalex.org/W2268346118","https://openalex.org/W2295566235","https://openalex.org/W2297842349","https://openalex.org/W2319835858","https://openalex.org/W2397023066","https://openalex.org/W2468114283","https://openalex.org/W2532428684","https://openalex.org/W2775351467","https://openalex.org/W2793506100","https://openalex.org/W2889334143","https://openalex.org/W2896005973","https://openalex.org/W2897903059","https://openalex.org/W2899213186","https://openalex.org/W2909632100","https://openalex.org/W2943576614","https://openalex.org/W2949442988","https://openalex.org/W2983382509","https://openalex.org/W3098075019","https://openalex.org/W6676885520","https://openalex.org/W6677618333","https://openalex.org/W6684560247","https://openalex.org/W6711844864"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1622964048","https://openalex.org/W30315714","https://openalex.org/W1906975550","https://openalex.org/W2056853153","https://openalex.org/W2057559274","https://openalex.org/W1965274140","https://openalex.org/W2026924879","https://openalex.org/W2005087563","https://openalex.org/W779885325","https://openalex.org/W2150972844"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Various":[0],"methods":[1,23],"have":[2],"been":[3],"used":[4],"to":[5,63,78,102],"estimate":[6],"the":[7,25,59,65,70,80,87,90,105,124,147],"pupil":[8,39,88],"location":[9],"within":[10,69,89],"an":[11,99],"image":[12,49],"or":[13],"a":[14,37,43,53,114,139],"real-time":[15],"video":[16],"frame":[17],"in":[18,28,150,159],"many":[19],"fields.":[20],"However,":[21],"these":[22],"lack":[24],"performance":[26],"specifically":[27],"low-resolution":[29],"images":[30],"and":[31,48,83,108,134,163,177,189],"varying":[32,106],"background":[33],"conditions.":[34],"We":[35,127],"propose":[36],"coarse-to-fine":[38],"localisation":[40],"method":[41,130,155],"using":[42,131],"composite":[44],"of":[45,86,110,123,161],"machine":[46],"learning":[47],"processing":[50],"algorithms.":[51],"First,":[52],"pre-trained":[54],"model":[55],"is":[56,117],"employed":[57],"for":[58,120,146],"facial":[60],"landmark":[61],"identification":[62,122],"extract":[64],"desired":[66],"eye":[67,92],"frames":[68],"input":[71,111],"image.":[72],"Then,":[73],"we":[74,97,144],"use":[75],"multi-stage":[76],"convolution":[77],"find":[79],"optimal":[81],"horizontal":[82],"vertical":[84],"coordinates":[85],"identified":[91],"frames.":[93],"For":[94],"this":[95,151],"purpose,":[96],"define":[98],"adaptive":[100],"kernel":[101],"deal":[103],"with":[104,138],"resolution":[107],"size":[109],"images.":[112],"Furthermore,":[113],"dynamic":[115],"threshold":[116],"calculated":[118],"recursively":[119],"reliable":[121],"best-matched":[125],"candidate.":[126],"evaluated":[128],"our":[129],"various":[132],"statistical":[133],"standard":[135,169],"metrics":[136],"along":[137],"standardised":[140],"distance":[141],"metric":[142],"that":[143],"introduce":[145],"first":[148],"time":[149],"study.":[152],"The":[153,171],"proposed":[154],"outperforms":[156],"previous":[157],"works":[158],"terms":[160],"accuracy":[162],"reliability":[164],"when":[165],"benchmarked":[166],"on":[167],"multiple":[168],"datasets.":[170],"work":[172],"has":[173],"diverse":[174],"artificial":[175],"intelligence":[176],"industrial":[178],"applications":[179],"including":[180],"human":[181],"computer":[182],"interfaces,":[183],"emotion":[184],"recognition,":[185],"psychological":[186],"profiling,":[187],"healthcare,":[188],"automated":[190],"deception":[191],"detection.":[192]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
