{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2901800543","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","title":"Employing Ray-Tracing and Least-Squares Support Vector Machines for Localisation","display_name":"Employing Ray-Tracing and Least-Squares Support Vector Machines for Localisation","publication_year":2018,"publication_date":"2018-11-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2901800543","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","mag":"2901800543","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30463397"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s18114059","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/18/11/4059/pdf?version=1542858736","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/18/11/4059/pdf?version=1542858736","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034833198","display_name":"Benny Chitambira","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36234482","display_name":"University of Bristol","ror":"https://ror.org/0524sp257","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Benny Chitambira","raw_affiliation_strings":["Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082279856","display_name":"Simon Armour","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6319-9789"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36234482","display_name":"University of Bristol","ror":"https://ror.org/0524sp257","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Simon Armour","raw_affiliation_strings":["Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110195671","display_name":"Stephen Wales","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stephen Wales","raw_affiliation_strings":["Roke Manor Research, Romsey, Hampshire SO51 0ZN, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Roke Manor Research, Romsey, Hampshire SO51 0ZN, UK","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081159321","display_name":"Mark A Beach","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6798-7001"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36234482","display_name":"University of Bristol","ror":"https://ror.org/0524sp257","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mark Beach","raw_affiliation_strings":["Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6798-7001","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Communication Systems & Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5034833198"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":0.2618,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.59147487,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"11","first_page":"4059","last_page":"4059"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10500","display_name":"Sparse and Compressive Sensing Techniques","score":0.9983000159263611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2206","display_name":"Computational Mechanics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10860","display_name":"Speech and Audio Processing","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/non-line-of-sight-propagation","display_name":"Non-line-of-sight propagation","score":0.9751319289207458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multilateration","display_name":"Multilateration","score":0.8516935110092163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7149035334587097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.700764000415802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multipath-propagation","display_name":"Multipath propagation","score":0.5755796432495117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/least-squares-function-approximation","display_name":"Least-squares function approximation","score":0.5583006739616394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.5309642553329468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.4850301146507263},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.3765944838523865},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.17235895991325378},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.16637346148490906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.14680573344230652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.13601219654083252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.12948310375213623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless","display_name":"Wireless","score":0.12020903825759888}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154910267","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1740982","display_name":"Non-line-of-sight propagation","level":3,"score":0.9751319289207458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104037064","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1640884","display_name":"Multilateration","level":3,"score":0.8516935110092163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7149035334587097},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.700764000415802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161218011","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11827794","display_name":"Multipath propagation","level":3,"score":0.5755796432495117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9936470","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6510405","display_name":"Least-squares function approximation","level":3,"score":0.5583006739616394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.5309642553329468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.4850301146507263},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.3765944838523865},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.17235895991325378},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.16637346148490906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.14680573344230652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.13601219654083252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.12948310375213623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.12020903825759888},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127162648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16858953","display_name":"Channel (broadcasting)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185429906","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1130160","display_name":"Estimator","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66938386","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q633538","display_name":"Structural engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62611344","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062658","display_name":"Node (physics)","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":8,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/s18114059","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/18/11/4059/pdf?version=1542858736","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:30463397","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30463397","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:research-information.bris.ac.uk:openaire/9aac4598-bf10-4d2c-9bb4-b338210181cd","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/9aac4598-bf10-4d2c-9bb4-b338210181cd","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400895","display_name":"Bristol Research (University of Bristol)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I36234482","host_organization_name":"University of Bristol","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Chitambira, B, Armour, S, Wales, S & Beach, M 2018, 'Employing Ray-tracing and Least-Squares Support Vector Machines for Localisation', Sensors, vol. 18, no. 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:02e7632f7db84b8786c724f05238ea8c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/02e7632f7db84b8786c724f05238ea8c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors, Vol 18, Iss 11, p 4059 (2018)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:5257876","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://europepmc.org/pmc/articles/PMC6263922","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1424-8220/18/11/4059/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:6263922","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/6263922","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Sensors (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:research-information.bris.ac.uk:publications/9aac4598-bf10-4d2c-9bb4-b338210181cd","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1983/9aac4598-bf10-4d2c-9bb4-b338210181cd","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400895","display_name":"Bristol Research (University of Bristol)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I36234482","host_organization_name":"University of Bristol","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36234482"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":""}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/s18114059","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114059","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/18/11/4059/pdf?version=1542858736","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Sensors","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5562138978","display_name":"Future Communications: People, Power and Performanace","funder_award_id":"EP/I028153/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2901800543.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2901800543.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1596717185","https://openalex.org/W1999541707","https://openalex.org/W2036672217","https://openalex.org/W2053401005","https://openalex.org/W2060873147","https://openalex.org/W2113300902","https://openalex.org/W2132569020","https://openalex.org/W2151388232","https://openalex.org/W2154841070","https://openalex.org/W2156909104","https://openalex.org/W2162718622","https://openalex.org/W2343874524","https://openalex.org/W2544785911","https://openalex.org/W2557258618","https://openalex.org/W2612702209","https://openalex.org/W2888003813","https://openalex.org/W2888102684","https://openalex.org/W3124827097","https://openalex.org/W6659627159"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2391980879","https://openalex.org/W1636339314","https://openalex.org/W2903220199","https://openalex.org/W2799362944","https://openalex.org/W2083509671","https://openalex.org/W1978001812","https://openalex.org/W4307018408","https://openalex.org/W2355647129","https://openalex.org/W2353409691","https://openalex.org/W4200222286"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"article":[1],"evaluates":[2],"the":[3,15,80,124,128],"use":[4],"of":[5,17,117],"least-squares":[6,85],"support":[7,86],"vector":[8,87],"machines,":[9],"with":[10,62],"ray-traced":[11],"data,":[12],"to":[13,33,95],"solve":[14],"problem":[16],"localisation":[18,82],"in":[19,48,106],"multipath":[20],"environments.":[21,101,108],"The":[22,76],"schemes":[23,63],"discussed":[24],"concern":[25],"2-D":[26],"localisation,":[27],"but":[28,122],"could":[29],"easily":[30],"be":[31,46],"extended":[32],"3-D.":[34],"It":[35],"does":[36],"not":[37],"require":[38,65],"NLOS":[39,66,100],"identification":[40,67],"and":[41,54,68,97],"mitigation,":[42,69],"hence,":[43],"it":[44],"can":[45],"applied":[47],"any":[49],"environment.":[50],"Some":[51],"background":[52],"details":[53],"a":[55],"detailed":[56],"experimental":[57],"setup":[58],"is":[59],"provided.":[60],"Comparisons":[61],"that":[64,79],"from":[70],"earlier":[71],"work,":[72],"are":[73],"also":[74],"presented.":[75],"results":[77],"demonstrate":[78],"direct":[81],"scheme":[83],"using":[84],"machine":[88],"(the":[89],"Direct":[90,129],"method)":[91],"achieves":[92],"superior":[93],"outage":[94,105,115,125],"TDOA":[96,102],"TOA/AOA":[98,109],"for":[99,112],"has":[103],"better":[104,111],"LOS":[107],"performs":[110],"an":[113],"accepted":[114],"probability":[116,126],"20":[118],"percent":[119],"or":[120],"greater":[121],"as":[123],"lowers,":[127],"method":[130],"becomes":[131],"better.":[132]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}