{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2049832569","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61010152","title":"Automatic Detection of Small Single Trees in the Forest-Tundra Ecotone Using Airborne Laser Scanning","display_name":"Automatic Detection of Small Single Trees in the Forest-Tundra Ecotone Using Airborne Laser Scanning","publication_year":2014,"publication_date":"2014-10-23","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2049832569","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61010152","mag":"2049832569"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs61010152","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61010152","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/10/10152/pdf?version=1414063554","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/10/10152/pdf?version=1414063554","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049788837","display_name":"Nadja Stumberg","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I54108979","display_name":"Norwegian University of Life Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04a1mvv97","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nadja Stumberg","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036310182","display_name":"Ole Martin Bollands\u00e5s","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1231-7692"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I54108979","display_name":"Norwegian University of Life Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04a1mvv97","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ole Bollands\u00e5s","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073215366","display_name":"Terje Gobakken","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5534-049X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I54108979","display_name":"Norwegian University of Life Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04a1mvv97","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Terje Gobakken","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5534-049X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034250940","display_name":"Erik N\u00e6sset","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2460-5843"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I54108979","display_name":"Norwegian University of Life Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04a1mvv97","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Erik N\u00e6sset","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 \u00c5s, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5073215366"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I54108979"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":1163,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":1254},"fwci":0.7439,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":12,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.73847478,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":"10","first_page":"10152","last_page":"10170"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11880","display_name":"Forest ecology and management","score":0.9988999962806702,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2309","display_name":"Nature and Landscape Conservation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12713","display_name":"Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Studies","score":0.9988999962806702,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1109","display_name":"Insect Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ecotone","display_name":"Ecotone","score":0.9285218715667725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tundra","display_name":"Tundra","score":0.860877513885498},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.6903672814369202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/laser-scanning","display_name":"Laser scanning","score":0.5843408703804016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/environmental-science","display_name":"Environmental science","score":0.5654231905937195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lidar","display_name":"Lidar","score":0.5418077707290649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.5202585458755493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/vegetation","display_name":"Vegetation (pathology)","score":0.5071978569030762},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transect","display_name":"Transect","score":0.48112693428993225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physical-geography","display_name":"Physical geography","score":0.47257816791534424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/alpine-climate","display_name":"Alpine climate","score":0.4614045023918152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chamaecyparis","display_name":"Chamaecyparis","score":0.4266640543937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/altitude","display_name":"Altitude (triangle)","score":0.4194853901863098},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/forestry","display_name":"Forestry","score":0.325933575630188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ecology","display_name":"Ecology","score":0.32048457860946655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/laser","display_name":"Laser","score":0.3104665279388428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geology","display_name":"Geology","score":0.2592701315879822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.25197505950927734},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ecosystem","display_name":"Ecosystem","score":0.2430952489376068},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/shrub","display_name":"Shrub","score":0.1803167164325714},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.16750413179397583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biology","display_name":"Biology","score":0.11396613717079163}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199877563","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55613","display_name":"Ecotone","level":3,"score":0.9285218715667725},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125069764","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43262","display_name":"Tundra","level":3,"score":0.860877513885498},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.6903672814369202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C141349535","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1361664","display_name":"Laser scanning","level":3,"score":0.5843408703804016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.5654231905937195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51399673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504027","display_name":"Lidar","level":2,"score":0.5418077707290649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.5202585458755493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776133958","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7918366","display_name":"Vegetation (pathology)","level":2,"score":0.5071978569030762},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C69661492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1447141","display_name":"Transect","level":2,"score":0.48112693428993225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100970517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52107","display_name":"Physical geography","level":1,"score":0.47257816791534424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C122628217","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q859654","display_name":"Alpine climate","level":2,"score":0.4614045023918152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776621788","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q147791","display_name":"Chamaecyparis","level":2,"score":0.4266640543937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6350597","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339495","display_name":"Altitude (triangle)","level":2,"score":0.4194853901863098},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97137747","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38112","display_name":"Forestry","level":1,"score":0.325933575630188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.32048457860946655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C520434653","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38867","display_name":"Laser","level":2,"score":0.3104665279388428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.2592701315879822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.25197505950927734},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110872660","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37813","display_name":"Ecosystem","level":2,"score":0.2430952489376068},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778091200","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42295","display_name":"Shrub","level":2,"score":0.1803167164325714},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.16750413179397583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.11396613717079163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs61010152","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61010152","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/10/10152/pdf?version=1414063554","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:brage.bibsys.no:11250/276778","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/11250/276778","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401716","display_name":"Duo Research Archive (University of Oslo)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I184942183","host_organization_name":"University of Oslo","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184942183"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:6b98d3b2c62f4d57895b215f51b5062b","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/6b98d3b2c62f4d57895b215f51b5062b","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 6, Iss 10, Pp 10152-10170 (2014)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs61010152","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61010152","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/10/10152/pdf?version=1414063554","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","display_name":"Life in Land","score":0.41999998688697815}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1642676787","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"184636/S30","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323299","funder_display_name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2566448319","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"184636","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323299","funder_display_name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323299","display_name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d","ror":"https://ror.org/00epmv149"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324888","display_name":"Norges Milj\u00f8- og Biovitenskapelige Universitet","ror":"https://ror.org/04a1mvv97"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2049832569.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2049832569.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":43,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W84227776","https://openalex.org/W1272693108","https://openalex.org/W1487646976","https://openalex.org/W1521719052","https://openalex.org/W1968696002","https://openalex.org/W1977428739","https://openalex.org/W1990408021","https://openalex.org/W1990634901","https://openalex.org/W1992419399","https://openalex.org/W2000552749","https://openalex.org/W2003451613","https://openalex.org/W2005447989","https://openalex.org/W2009214675","https://openalex.org/W2014447144","https://openalex.org/W2039578897","https://openalex.org/W2046759104","https://openalex.org/W2047647497","https://openalex.org/W2050365624","https://openalex.org/W2050576295","https://openalex.org/W2052767522","https://openalex.org/W2062257380","https://openalex.org/W2083752265","https://openalex.org/W2086179139","https://openalex.org/W2086958883","https://openalex.org/W2097597310","https://openalex.org/W2104783309","https://openalex.org/W2104977717","https://openalex.org/W2105449134","https://openalex.org/W2115001352","https://openalex.org/W2116441276","https://openalex.org/W2122920344","https://openalex.org/W2126628174","https://openalex.org/W2131280289","https://openalex.org/W2132097058","https://openalex.org/W2134217662","https://openalex.org/W2144949021","https://openalex.org/W2161263303","https://openalex.org/W2161746820","https://openalex.org/W2168927550","https://openalex.org/W2437264581","https://openalex.org/W4302557792","https://openalex.org/W6603383834","https://openalex.org/W6678293961"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2902405216","https://openalex.org/W1973541847","https://openalex.org/W2144949021","https://openalex.org/W2411286375","https://openalex.org/W1966270110","https://openalex.org/W2734344106","https://openalex.org/W4252860304","https://openalex.org/W2333261705","https://openalex.org/W2161320160","https://openalex.org/W2049832569"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"A":[0],"large":[1,141],"proportion":[2],"of":[3,15,44,66,74,82,123,140,159,167,185,195],"Norway\u2019s":[4],"land":[5],"area":[6],"is":[7,26],"occupied":[8],"by":[9,32],"the":[10,23,42,72,138,177,183],"forest-tundra":[11],"ecotone.":[12],"The":[13,64],"vegetation":[14],"this":[16,67],"temperature-sensitive":[17],"ecosystem":[18],"between":[19],"mountain":[20],"forest":[21],"and":[22,35,91,110,125],"alpine":[24],"zone":[25],"expected":[27],"to":[28,70,105],"be":[29],"highly":[30],"affected":[31],"climate":[33],"change":[34],"effective":[36],"monitoring":[37,80],"techniques":[38],"are":[39],"required.":[40],"For":[41],"detection":[43,154,163],"such":[45],"small":[46,83],"pioneer":[47],"trees,":[48],"airborne":[49],"laser":[50,61,109,172,180],"scanning":[51],"(ALS)":[52],"has":[53],"been":[54],"proposed":[55],"as":[56,144,146],"a":[57,97,191],"useful":[58],"tool":[59],"employing":[60,129],"height":[62,112,173,181],"data.":[63,89],"objective":[65],"study":[68],"was":[69],"assess":[71],"capability":[73],"an":[75,120,147],"unsupervised":[76,121],"classification":[77,122],"for":[78,137,151],"automated":[79],"programs":[81],"individual":[84],"trees":[85],"using":[86],"high-density":[87],"ALS":[88,92],"Field":[90],"data":[93],"were":[94,114,155],"collected":[95],"along":[96],"1500":[98],"km":[99],"long":[100],"transect":[101],"stretching":[102],"from":[103],"northern":[104],"southern":[106],"Norway.":[107],"Different":[108],"tree":[111,124,152,161,197],"thresholds":[113],"tested":[115],"in":[116],"various":[117],"combinations":[118],"within":[119],"nontree":[126],"raster":[127],"cells":[128],"different":[130],"cell":[131,135,149,153,162,198],"sizes.":[132],"Suitable":[133],"initial":[134],"sizes":[136],"exclusion":[139],"treeless":[142],"areas":[143],"well":[145],"optimal":[148],"size":[150],"determined.":[156],"High":[157],"rates":[158,184],"successful":[160,196],"involved":[164],"high":[165],"levels":[166],"commission":[168,186],"error":[169,187],"at":[170],"lower":[171],"thresholds,":[174],"however,":[175],"exceeding":[176],"20":[178],"cm":[179],"threshold,":[182],"decreased":[188],"substantially":[189],"with":[190],"still":[192],"satisfying":[193],"rate":[194],"detection.":[199]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}