{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4395004628","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081458","title":"Estimation of Small-Stream Water Surface Elevation Using UAV Photogrammetry and Deep Learning","display_name":"Estimation of Small-Stream Water Surface Elevation Using UAV Photogrammetry and Deep Learning","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-04-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4395004628","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081458"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16081458","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081458","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/8/1458/pdf?version=1713603283","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/8/1458/pdf?version=1713603283","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027319798","display_name":"Rados\u0142aw Szostak","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0769-7755"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126596746","display_name":"Jagiellonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03bqmcz70","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126596746"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I686019","display_name":"AGH University of Krakow","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I686019"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Rados\u0142aw Szostak","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I686019","https://openalex.org/I126596746"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036847074","display_name":"Marcin Pietro\u0144","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9357-9231"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126596746","display_name":"Jagiellonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03bqmcz70","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126596746"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I686019","display_name":"AGH University of Krakow","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I686019"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marcin Pietro\u0144","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Computer Science, Electronics and Telecommunications, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Computer Science, Electronics and Telecommunications, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126596746","https://openalex.org/I686019"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079511494","display_name":"Przemys\u0142aw Wachniew","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6563-8249"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126596746","display_name":"Jagiellonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03bqmcz70","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126596746"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I686019","display_name":"AGH University of Krakow","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I686019"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Przemys\u0142aw Wachniew","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I686019","https://openalex.org/I126596746"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014449410","display_name":"Miros\u0142aw Zimnoch","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0594-9376"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126596746","display_name":"Jagiellonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03bqmcz70","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126596746"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I686019","display_name":"AGH University of Krakow","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I686019"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Miros\u0142aw Zimnoch","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 19 Reymonta St., 30-059 Krakow, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I686019","https://openalex.org/I126596746"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090839365","display_name":"Pawe\u0142 \u0106wi\u0105ka\u0142a","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5526-0908"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126596746","display_name":"Jagiellonian University","ror":"https://ror.org/03bqmcz70","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126596746"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I686019","display_name":"AGH University of Krakow","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I686019"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pawe\u0142 \u0106wi\u0105ka\u0142a","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Geo-Data Science, Geodesy, and Environmental Engineering, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Geo-Data Science, Geodesy, and Environmental Engineering, AGH University of Krak\u00f3w, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I686019","https://openalex.org/I126596746"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5027319798"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126596746","https://openalex.org/I686019"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":0.6049,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.61937846,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"8","first_page":"1458","last_page":"1458"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10930","display_name":"Flood Risk Assessment and Management","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2306","display_name":"Global and Planetary Change"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10577","display_name":"Hydrology and Sediment Transport Processes","score":0.9954000115394592,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2303","display_name":"Ecology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/orthophoto","display_name":"Orthophoto","score":0.8515866994857788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/photogrammetry","display_name":"Photogrammetry","score":0.6974115371704102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6699078679084778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.573664665222168},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mean-squared-error","display_name":"Mean squared error","score":0.5295827388763428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-elevation-model","display_name":"Digital elevation model","score":0.48216503858566284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/raster-graphics","display_name":"Raster graphics","score":0.4815919101238251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.47678259015083313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.4630368649959564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sampling","display_name":"Sampling (signal processing)","score":0.4616353511810303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.44734829664230347},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.41724854707717896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/terrain","display_name":"Terrain","score":0.41216641664505005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/elevation","display_name":"Elevation (ballistics)","score":0.4101283550262451},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.33422350883483887},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.25536343455314636},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geology","display_name":"Geology","score":0.14945390820503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cartography","display_name":"Cartography","score":0.1423848271369934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.1377514898777008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.1146664023399353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.09799891710281372}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82789328","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q922585","display_name":"Orthophoto","level":2,"score":0.8515866994857788},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117455697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190149","display_name":"Photogrammetry","level":2,"score":0.6974115371704102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6699078679084778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.573664665222168},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139945424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1940696","display_name":"Mean squared error","level":2,"score":0.5295827388763428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181843262","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q640492","display_name":"Digital elevation model","level":2,"score":0.48216503858566284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181844469","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182270","display_name":"Raster graphics","level":2,"score":0.4815919101238251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.47678259015083313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.4630368649959564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140779682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210868","display_name":"Sampling (signal processing)","level":3,"score":0.4616353511810303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.44734829664230347},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.41724854707717896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161840515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186131","display_name":"Terrain","level":2,"score":0.41216641664505005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37054046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q641888","display_name":"Elevation (ballistics)","level":2,"score":0.4101283550262451},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.33422350883483887},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.25536343455314636},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.14945390820503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58640448","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42515","display_name":"Cartography","level":1,"score":0.1423848271369934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.1377514898777008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.1146664023399353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.09799891710281372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106131492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3072260","display_name":"Filter (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16081458","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081458","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/8/1458/pdf?version=1713603283","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:e3f5926db839473680e6443a2644740c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/e3f5926db839473680e6443a2644740c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 16, Iss 8, p 1458 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16081458","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081458","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/8/1458/pdf?version=1713603283","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8399999737739563,"display_name":"Clean water and sanitation","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/6"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2031217355","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Cyfronet","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326815","funder_display_name":"Infrastruktura PL-Grid"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2284871377","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"857925","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322511","funder_display_name":"Narodowe Centrum Nauki"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3377948470","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Technology","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324664","funder_display_name":"Akademia G\u00f3rniczo-Hutnicza im. Stanislawa Staszica"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G627136201","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2020/02/Y/ST10/00065","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322511","funder_display_name":"Narodowe Centrum Nauki"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322511","display_name":"Narodowe Centrum Nauki","ror":"https://ror.org/03ha2q922"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322650","display_name":"Narodowym Centrum Nauki","ror":"https://ror.org/03ha2q922"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324664","display_name":"Akademia G\u00f3rniczo-Hutnicza im. Stanislawa Staszica","ror":"https://ror.org/00bas1c41"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326815","display_name":"Infrastruktura PL-Grid","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337160","display_name":"Academic Computer Centre Cyfronet, AGH University of Science and Technology","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4395004628.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1773543203","https://openalex.org/W1901129140","https://openalex.org/W1971575659","https://openalex.org/W1971704462","https://openalex.org/W1990436032","https://openalex.org/W2009584434","https://openalex.org/W2009619252","https://openalex.org/W2015204276","https://openalex.org/W2024323702","https://openalex.org/W2033602192","https://openalex.org/W2039131110","https://openalex.org/W2063712217","https://openalex.org/W2083773765","https://openalex.org/W2101841577","https://openalex.org/W2108598243","https://openalex.org/W2141254168","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2208198711","https://openalex.org/W2495585455","https://openalex.org/W2577476128","https://openalex.org/W2587446396","https://openalex.org/W2604328385","https://openalex.org/W2767444805","https://openalex.org/W2769519862","https://openalex.org/W2908843432","https://openalex.org/W2913678469","https://openalex.org/W2951276077","https://openalex.org/W2951616608","https://openalex.org/W2993828238","https://openalex.org/W3015674544","https://openalex.org/W3025643856","https://openalex.org/W3088226460","https://openalex.org/W3147986556","https://openalex.org/W4200553326","https://openalex.org/W4205529068","https://openalex.org/W4213449917","https://openalex.org/W4224027459","https://openalex.org/W6805760074"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2063656053","https://openalex.org/W2780686954","https://openalex.org/W2154502627","https://openalex.org/W2289170574","https://openalex.org/W1582871225","https://openalex.org/W1496791732","https://openalex.org/W2910338790","https://openalex.org/W3148155918","https://openalex.org/W2462682329","https://openalex.org/W2389131491"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Unmanned":[0],"aerial":[1],"vehicle":[2],"(UAV)":[3],"photogrammetry":[4],"allows":[5],"the":[6,31,36,49,57,95,108,147,175,188,199,211,215,220,244,274,280,293,316,320,330],"generation":[7,153],"of":[8,16,20,39,51,94,124,133,150,178,203,217,247,300,324,344],"orthophoto":[9,137],"and":[10,60,88,130,136,155,184,198,214,234,260,306,346],"digital":[11],"surface":[12,41],"model":[13],"(DSM)":[14],"rasters":[15],"terrain.":[17],"However,":[18],"DSMs":[19],"water":[21,32,40],"bodies":[22],"mapped":[23],"using":[24,164],"this":[25,74,115],"technique":[26],"often":[27],"reveal":[28],"distortions":[29],"in":[30,114,128],"surface,":[33],"thereby":[34],"impeding":[35],"accurate":[37,332],"sampling":[38,246],"elevation":[42],"(WSE)":[43],"from":[44,64,107,120,180,193,205,271],"DSMs.":[45],"This":[46],"study":[47,116,213,283],"investigates":[48],"capability":[50],"deep":[52],"neural":[53,68],"networks":[54,69],"to":[55,104,145,315],"accommodate":[56],"aforementioned":[58],"perturbations":[59],"effectively":[61],"estimate":[62],"WSE":[63],"photogrammetric":[65,109,248],"rasters.":[66],"Convolutional":[67],"(CNNs)":[70],"were":[71,81,162],"employed":[72,113,144],"for":[73,257,265,303,309],"purpose.":[75],"Two":[76],"regression":[77,84],"approaches":[78],"utilizing":[79,269],"CNNs":[80],"explored:":[82],"direct":[83],"employing":[85],"an":[86,99,253,297],"encoder":[87],"a":[89,194,224,261,341],"solution":[90,222,276,295,337],"based":[91,242],"on":[92,210,243,251,279],"prediction":[93],"weight":[96],"mask":[97,152],"by":[98,319,340],"autoencoder":[100],"architecture,":[101,154],"subsequently":[102],"used":[103],"sample":[105],"values":[106],"DSM.":[110],"The":[111,237,335],"dataset":[112,190],"comprises":[117],"data":[118,270],"collected":[119],"five":[121],"case":[122,182,196,207,212,282,291],"studies":[123],"small":[125],"lowland":[126],"streams":[127],"Poland":[129],"Denmark,":[131],"consisting":[132],"322":[134],"DSM":[135],"raster":[138],"samples.":[139],"A":[140],"grid":[141],"search":[142],"was":[143,277],"identify":[146],"optimal":[148],"combination":[149],"encoder,":[151],"batch":[156],"size":[157],"among":[158],"multiple":[159],"candidates.":[160],"Solutions":[161],"evaluated":[163],"two":[165],"cross-validation":[166,259,305],"methods:":[167],"stratified":[168,258,310],"k-fold":[169],"cross-validation,":[170,186,311],"where":[171,187],"validation":[172,189,218],"subsets":[173],"maintained":[174],"same":[176,281],"proportion":[177],"samples":[179,204],"all":[181],"studies,":[183],"leave-one-case-out":[185],"originates":[191],"entirely":[192],"single":[195],"study,":[197,292],"training":[200],"set":[201],"consists":[202],"other":[206,272,285],"studies.":[208],"Depending":[209],"level":[216],"strictness,":[219],"proposed":[221,238,275,294,336],"achieved":[223,296,318],"root":[225],"mean":[226],"square":[227],"error":[228],"(RMSE)":[229],"ranging":[230],"between":[231],"2":[232],"cm":[233,302,308],"16":[235],"cm.":[236],"method":[239,322,333],"outperforms":[240],"methods":[241],"straightforward":[245],"DSM,":[249],"achieving,":[250],"average,":[252],"84%":[254],"lower":[255,263],"RMSE":[256,264,298],"62%":[262],"all-in-case-out":[266,304],"cross-validation.":[267],"By":[268],"research,":[273],"compared":[278],"with":[284],"UAV-based":[286],"methods.":[287],"For":[288],"that":[289],"benchmark":[290],"score":[299],"5.9":[301],"3.5":[307],"which":[312,327],"is":[313,328,338],"close":[314],"result":[317],"radar-based":[321],"(RMSE":[323],"3":[325],"cm),":[326],"considered":[329],"most":[331],"available.":[334],"characterized":[339],"high":[342],"degree":[343],"explainability":[345],"generalization.":[347]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}