{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4392166497","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050781","title":"A One-Class Classifier for the Detection of GAN Manipulated Multi-Spectral Satellite Images","display_name":"A One-Class Classifier for the Detection of GAN Manipulated Multi-Spectral Satellite Images","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-02-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4392166497","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050781"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16050781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050781","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/5/781/pdf?version=1708763784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/5/781/pdf?version=1708763784","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009676491","display_name":"Lydia Abady","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0490-9943"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102064193","display_name":"University of Siena","ror":"https://ror.org/01tevnk56","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lydia Abady","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018615713","display_name":"Giovanna Maria Dimitri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2728-4272"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102064193","display_name":"University of Siena","ror":"https://ror.org/01tevnk56","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Giovanna Maria Dimitri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007836692","display_name":"Mauro Barni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7368-0866"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102064193","display_name":"University of Siena","ror":"https://ror.org/01tevnk56","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mauro Barni","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5009676491"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":2.2,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":7,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88409845,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"5","first_page":"781","last_page":"781"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10689","display_name":"Remote-Sensing Image Classification","score":0.9919000267982483,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10689","display_name":"Remote-Sensing Image Classification","score":0.9919000267982483,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10688","display_name":"Image and Signal Denoising Methods","score":0.9866999983787537,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.9629999995231628,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8004412055015564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/autoencoder","display_name":"Autoencoder","score":0.7809866070747375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7778900861740112},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.756118655204773},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.675667405128479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/detector","display_name":"Detector","score":0.5213497877120972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/false-alarm","display_name":"False alarm","score":0.4941411316394806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/binary-classification","display_name":"Binary classification","score":0.43632322549819946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generalization","display_name":"Generalization","score":0.41341447830200195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.3589080572128296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3580739498138428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.23528319597244263},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.122444748878479}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8004412055015564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101738243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786435","display_name":"Autoencoder","level":3,"score":0.7809866070747375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7778900861740112},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.756118655204773},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.675667405128479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94915269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1834857","display_name":"Detector","level":2,"score":0.5213497877120972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776836416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1364844","display_name":"False alarm","level":2,"score":0.4941411316394806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66905080","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17005494","display_name":"Binary classification","level":3,"score":0.43632322549819946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177148314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170084","display_name":"Generalization","level":2,"score":0.41341447830200195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.3589080572128296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3580739498138428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.23528319597244263},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.122444748878479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16050781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050781","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/5/781/pdf?version=1708763784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:usiena-air.unisi.it:11365/1256956","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11365/1256956","pdf_url":"https://usiena-air.unisi.it/bitstream/11365/1256956/4/remotesensing-16-00781_.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196319","display_name":"Use Siena air (University of Siena)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I102064193","host_organization_name":"University of Siena","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102064193"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:air.unimi.it:2434/1187145","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/5/781","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400516","display_name":"Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I189158943","host_organization_name":"University of Milan","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I189158943"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:121fa31ce08344f6b757a4bde491464c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/121fa31ce08344f6b757a4bde491464c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 16, Iss 5, p 781 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs16050781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16050781","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/16/5/781/pdf?version=1708763784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","score":0.6399999856948853}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1579019551","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8750-20-2-1004","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332180","funder_display_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4713059963","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8750","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332180","funder_display_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4946344450","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8750-20-2-100","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332180","funder_display_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8140536623","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8750-20-2-1004","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338294","funder_display_name":"Air Force Research Laboratory"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332180","display_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","ror":"https://ror.org/02caytj08"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332815","display_name":"Advanced Research Projects Agency","ror":"https://ror.org/02caytj08"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338294","display_name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2egq70"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4392166497.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1970088130","https://openalex.org/W2102409316","https://openalex.org/W2202109488","https://openalex.org/W2311607323","https://openalex.org/W2475287302","https://openalex.org/W2603777577","https://openalex.org/W2739748921","https://openalex.org/W2752796333","https://openalex.org/W2766527293","https://openalex.org/W2786211334","https://openalex.org/W2884367402","https://openalex.org/W2919115771","https://openalex.org/W2940618856","https://openalex.org/W2946948417","https://openalex.org/W2962770929","https://openalex.org/W2962793481","https://openalex.org/W2963073614","https://openalex.org/W2963470893","https://openalex.org/W2964024144","https://openalex.org/W2964167449","https://openalex.org/W2972027629","https://openalex.org/W3010352349","https://openalex.org/W3019166713","https://openalex.org/W3035574324","https://openalex.org/W3036989365","https://openalex.org/W3088527134","https://openalex.org/W3096831136","https://openalex.org/W3129485657","https://openalex.org/W3156208778","https://openalex.org/W3158878203","https://openalex.org/W3173126908","https://openalex.org/W3174285742","https://openalex.org/W4206566734","https://openalex.org/W4286568264","https://openalex.org/W4297838879","https://openalex.org/W4307730280","https://openalex.org/W4307887176","https://openalex.org/W4391594835","https://openalex.org/W6698064614"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3013693939","https://openalex.org/W2566616303","https://openalex.org/W2159052453","https://openalex.org/W3131327266","https://openalex.org/W4321789545","https://openalex.org/W4309131238","https://openalex.org/W4380355000","https://openalex.org/W4382934300","https://openalex.org/W2121061354","https://openalex.org/W4285388059"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"current":[1],"image":[2,10,39,89],"generative":[3,92],"models":[4,22],"have":[5,54],"achieved":[6],"a":[7,105,182,206,211],"remarkably":[8],"realistic":[9],"quality,":[11],"offering":[12],"numerous":[13],"academic":[14],"and":[15,91,141,171,221,230],"industrial":[16],"applications.":[17],"However,":[18,57],"to":[19,31,86,88,118],"ensure":[20],"these":[21,58],"are":[23],"used":[24,234],"for":[25,218],"benign":[26],"purposes,":[27],"it":[28],"is":[29],"essential":[30],"develop":[32],"tools":[33],"that":[34,153],"definitively":[35],"detect":[36,166],"whether":[37],"an":[38,143],"has":[40],"been":[41,55],"synthetically":[42],"generated.":[43],"Consequently,":[44],"several":[45],"detectors":[46,59],"with":[47],"excellent":[48],"performance":[49],"in":[50],"computer":[51],"vision":[52],"applications":[53],"developed.":[56],"cannot":[60],"be":[61],"directly":[62],"applied":[63],"as":[64],"they":[65,84],"areto":[66],"multi-spectral":[67,148],"satellite":[68],"images,":[69,164],"necessitating":[70],"the":[71,120,129,154,186,190,195,200,219,226,235],"training":[72,140],"of":[73,122,199,208,216],"new":[74],"models.":[75],"While":[76],"two-class":[77,123],"classifiers":[78,188],"generally":[79],"achieve":[80],"high":[81],"detection":[82,209],"accuracies,":[83],"struggle":[85],"generalize":[87],"domains":[90,170],"architectures":[93,174],"different":[94,169],"from":[95,168],"those":[96],"encountered":[97,176],"during":[98,177],"training.":[99,178],"In":[100],"this":[101],"paper,":[102],"we":[103,180,233],"propose":[104],"one-class":[106],"classifier":[107],"based":[108],"on":[109,146,162,189],"Vector":[110],"Quantized":[111],"Variational":[112],"Autoencoder":[113],"2":[114],"(VQ-VAE":[115],"2)":[116],"features":[117],"overcome":[119],"limitations":[121],"classifiers.":[124,135],"We":[125,150],"start":[126],"by":[127,133,139,173],"highlighting":[128],"generalization":[130,197],"problem":[131],"faced":[132],"binary":[134],"This":[136],"was":[137,159],"demonstrated":[138],"testing":[142],"EfficientNet-B4":[144,236],"architecture":[145],"multiple":[147],"datasets.":[149],"then":[151],"illustrate":[152],"VQ-VAE":[155,201,227],"2-based":[156,202,228],"classifier,":[157],"which":[158],"trained":[160],"exclusively":[161],"pristine":[163],"could":[165],"images":[167],"generated":[172,192],"not":[175],"Finally,":[179],"conducted":[181],"head-to-head":[183],"comparison":[184],"between":[185],"two":[187],"same":[191],"datasets,":[193],"emphasizing":[194],"superior":[196],"capabilities":[198],"detector,":[203,229],"wherewe":[204],"obtained":[205],"probability":[207],"at":[210],"0.05":[212],"false":[213],"alarm":[214],"rate":[215],"1":[217],"blue":[220],"red":[222],"channels":[223],"when":[224,232],"using":[225],"0.72":[231],"classifier.":[237]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}