{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4386860134","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184597","title":"Unexpected Expansion of Rare-Earth Element Mining Activities in the Myanmar\u2013China Border Region","display_name":"Unexpected Expansion of Rare-Earth Element Mining Activities in the Myanmar\u2013China Border Region","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-09-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4386860134","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184597"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs15184597","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184597","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4597/pdf?version=1695101996","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4597/pdf?version=1695101996","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036273344","display_name":"Emmanuel Chinkaka","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8652-7633"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2800088668","display_name":"Malawi University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/027vmhf17","country_code":"MW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2800088668"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I86501945","display_name":"University of Delaware","ror":"https://ror.org/01sbq1a82","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}],"countries":["MW","US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Emmanuel Chinkaka","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe P.O. Box 5196, Malawi","Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe P.O. Box 5196, Malawi","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2800088668"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000293727","display_name":"Julie Michelle Klinger","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9106-9067"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I86501945","display_name":"University of Delaware","ror":"https://ror.org/01sbq1a82","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Julie Michelle Klinger","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081299715","display_name":"Kyle Frankel Davis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4504-1407"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I86501945","display_name":"University of Delaware","ror":"https://ror.org/01sbq1a82","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kyle Frankel Davis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5004012698","display_name":"Federica Bianco","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1953-8727"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I86501945","display_name":"University of Delaware","ror":"https://ror.org/01sbq1a82","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Federica Bianco","raw_affiliation_strings":["Data Science Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","Joseph R. Biden, Jr. School of Public Policy and Administration, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Data Science Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Joseph R. Biden, Jr. School of Public Policy and Administration, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I86501945"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5036273344"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2800088668","https://openalex.org/I86501945"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":3.2837,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":19,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93636767,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"15","issue":"18","first_page":"4597","last_page":"4597"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12157","display_name":"Geochemistry and Geologic Mapping","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12157","display_name":"Geochemistry and Geologic Mapping","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10689","display_name":"Remote-Sensing Image Classification","score":0.9930999875068665,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2214","display_name":"Media Technology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13282","display_name":"Automated Road and Building Extraction","score":0.9865000247955322,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2212","display_name":"Ocean Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/china","display_name":"China","score":0.7306895852088928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/normalized-difference-vegetation-index","display_name":"Normalized Difference Vegetation Index","score":0.540785551071167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physical-geography","display_name":"Physical geography","score":0.48340240120887756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.474774569272995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/footprint","display_name":"Footprint","score":0.4150794446468353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/vegetation","display_name":"Vegetation (pathology)","score":0.41152167320251465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mining-engineering","display_name":"Mining engineering","score":0.39779359102249146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geology","display_name":"Geology","score":0.3533804714679718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/climate-change","display_name":"Climate change","score":0.31328925490379333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/archaeology","display_name":"Archaeology","score":0.0856601893901825}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191935318","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q148","display_name":"China","level":2,"score":0.7306895852088928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1549246","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q718775","display_name":"Normalized Difference Vegetation Index","level":3,"score":0.540785551071167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100970517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q52107","display_name":"Physical geography","level":1,"score":0.48340240120887756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.474774569272995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132943942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2562511","display_name":"Footprint","level":2,"score":0.4150794446468353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776133958","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7918366","display_name":"Vegetation (pathology)","level":2,"score":0.41152167320251465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16674752","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1370637","display_name":"Mining engineering","level":1,"score":0.39779359102249146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.3533804714679718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132651083","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7942","display_name":"Climate change","level":2,"score":0.31328925490379333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166957645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498","display_name":"Archaeology","level":1,"score":0.0856601893901825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111368507","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43518","display_name":"Oceanography","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs15184597","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184597","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4597/pdf?version=1695101996","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:e8ab538149ae40beaa2b5ed439d149fc","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/e8ab538149ae40beaa2b5ed439d149fc","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 15, Iss 18, p 4597 (2023)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs15184597","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15184597","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/18/4597/pdf?version=1695101996","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Life in Land","score":0.5600000023841858,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1719729159","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2039857","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G848032724","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Science","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4386860134.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":94,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W130234296","https://openalex.org/W1922573132","https://openalex.org/W1940642994","https://openalex.org/W1988590943","https://openalex.org/W2029058476","https://openalex.org/W2039187328","https://openalex.org/W2045745603","https://openalex.org/W2071925161","https://openalex.org/W2076643187","https://openalex.org/W2118823101","https://openalex.org/W2118978333","https://openalex.org/W2134133413","https://openalex.org/W2155632266","https://openalex.org/W2209330516","https://openalex.org/W2285301603","https://openalex.org/W2323180767","https://openalex.org/W2360999096","https://openalex.org/W2419315028","https://openalex.org/W2510087820","https://openalex.org/W2547796326","https://openalex.org/W2566567889","https://openalex.org/W2575151940","https://openalex.org/W2592532736","https://openalex.org/W2606412288","https://openalex.org/W2725897987","https://openalex.org/W2770793789","https://openalex.org/W2771049483","https://openalex.org/W2776146695","https://openalex.org/W2793465189","https://openalex.org/W2793927960","https://openalex.org/W2896975324","https://openalex.org/W2901269785","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2964984782","https://openalex.org/W2972650086","https://openalex.org/W2989983865","https://openalex.org/W2992619379","https://openalex.org/W3006510656","https://openalex.org/W3013386193","https://openalex.org/W3019393257","https://openalex.org/W3023058341","https://openalex.org/W3028904023","https://openalex.org/W3029115223","https://openalex.org/W3037640242","https://openalex.org/W3045585619","https://openalex.org/W3095660303","https://openalex.org/W3117036953","https://openalex.org/W3120037828","https://openalex.org/W3128702905","https://openalex.org/W3134810357","https://openalex.org/W3140429422","https://openalex.org/W3140854437","https://openalex.org/W3159595972","https://openalex.org/W3162976944","https://openalex.org/W3169220243","https://openalex.org/W3193999406","https://openalex.org/W3195989941","https://openalex.org/W3200603369","https://openalex.org/W3209926640","https://openalex.org/W3217586766","https://openalex.org/W4205856081","https://openalex.org/W4206218989","https://openalex.org/W4210361695","https://openalex.org/W4210427987","https://openalex.org/W4213455753","https://openalex.org/W4220879815","https://openalex.org/W4221010455","https://openalex.org/W4223452673","https://openalex.org/W4223924852","https://openalex.org/W4226420963","https://openalex.org/W4249690194","https://openalex.org/W4281627689","https://openalex.org/W4281933899","https://openalex.org/W4281946776","https://openalex.org/W4283760815","https://openalex.org/W4285103945","https://openalex.org/W4286632969","https://openalex.org/W4289731708","https://openalex.org/W4292264221","https://openalex.org/W4307743845","https://openalex.org/W4308263521","https://openalex.org/W4311344811","https://openalex.org/W4313509068","https://openalex.org/W4322704799","https://openalex.org/W4327731264","https://openalex.org/W6636950212","https://openalex.org/W6647520412","https://openalex.org/W6662154727","https://openalex.org/W6774193106","https://openalex.org/W6778139314","https://openalex.org/W6796660829","https://openalex.org/W6810048081","https://openalex.org/W6839812622","https://openalex.org/W6842412796"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2902405216","https://openalex.org/W2792045142","https://openalex.org/W4224279790","https://openalex.org/W2366156370","https://openalex.org/W2368915900","https://openalex.org/W2920258086","https://openalex.org/W2156029149","https://openalex.org/W2163994306","https://openalex.org/W2354845145","https://openalex.org/W2378220688"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Mining":[0],"for":[1,14],"rare":[2,105,329],"earth":[3,106,330],"elements":[4],"is":[5,62,81,286],"rapidly":[6],"increasing,":[7],"driven":[8],"by":[9,141],"current":[10],"and":[11,16,49,101,122,146,162,168,170,201,210,238,270,303,318,326,338],"projected":[12],"demands":[13],"information":[15],"energy":[17],"technologies.":[18],"Following":[19],"China\u2019s":[20,144],"Central":[21],"Government\u2019s":[22],"2012":[23],"strategy":[24],"to":[25,92,184,188,196,233,262,320],"shift":[26],"away":[27],"from":[28,160,164,173,230],"mining":[29,64,70,96,138,220,228,276,336],"in":[30,44,47,55,65,71,78,95,103,119,125,128,219,236,250,259,301,335,344],"favor":[31],"of":[32,40,112,136,208,214,222,283,310,328,341],"value-added":[33],"processing,":[34],"primary":[35],"extraction":[36,343],"has":[37,67,73],"increased":[38,140,279],"outside":[39],"China.":[41,129],"Accordingly,":[42],"changes":[43,94,312],"mineral":[45,342],"exploitation":[46],"China":[48,66],"Myanmar":[50,72,121],"have":[51],"garnered":[52],"considerable":[53],"attention":[54],"the":[56,76,113,134,137,152,226,242,284,323,332,339],"past":[57],"decade.":[58],"The":[59,177,273,308],"prevailing":[60],"assumption":[61],"that":[63,133,275,291],"decreased":[68],"while":[69],"increased,":[74],"but":[75],"dynamic":[77],"border":[79,285,306,345],"regions":[80],"more":[82],"complex.":[83],"Our":[84,130],"empirical":[85],"study":[86,153,243],"used":[87,195],"Google":[88],"Earth":[89],"Engine":[90],"(GEE)":[91],"characterize":[93],"surface":[97,157,277],"footprints":[98],"between":[99],"2005":[100,161,237],"2020":[102,171],"two":[104],"mines":[107,256],"located":[108,258],"on":[109,143,148,280],"either":[110],"side":[111,145,150],"Myanmar\u2013China":[114],"border,":[115],"within":[116,241],"Kachin":[117],"State":[118],"northern":[120],"Nujiang":[123],"Prefecture":[124],"Yunnan":[126],"Province":[127],"results":[131],"show":[132],"extent":[135,221],"activities":[139],"130%":[142],"327%":[147],"Myanmar\u2019s":[149],"during":[151],"period.":[154],"We":[155,245],"extracted":[156],"reflectance":[158],"images":[159,172],"2010":[163],"Landsat":[165,174],"5":[166],"TM":[167],"2015":[169],"8":[175],"OLI.":[176],"Normalized":[178],"Vegetation":[179],"Index":[180],"(NDVI)":[181],"was":[182,194],"applied":[183],"dense":[185],"time-series":[186],"imagery":[187],"enhance":[189],"landcover":[190,198],"categories.":[191],"Random":[192],"Forest":[193],"categorize":[197],"into":[199],"mine":[200],"non-mine":[202,251],"classes":[203],"with":[204,297],"an":[205,217],"overall":[206],"accuracy":[207],"98%":[209],"a":[211,247],"Kappa":[212],"Coefficient":[213],"0.98,":[215],"revealing":[216],"increase":[218],"2.56":[223],"km2,":[224],"covering":[225],"spatial":[227],"footprint":[229],"1.22":[231],"km2":[232,235],"3.78":[234],"2020,":[239],"respectively,":[240],"area.":[244],"found":[246],"continuous":[248],"decrease":[249],"cover,":[252],"including":[253],"vegetation.":[254],"Both":[255],"are":[257],"areas":[260,278],"important":[261],"ethnic":[263],"minority":[264],"groups,":[265],"agrarian":[266],"livelihoods,":[267],"biodiversity":[268],"conservation,":[269],"regional":[271],"watersheds.":[272],"finding":[274],"both":[281],"sides":[282],"significant":[287],"because":[288],"it":[289],"shows":[290],"national-level":[292],"generalizations":[293],"do":[294],"not":[295],"align":[296],"local":[298],"realities,":[299],"particularly":[300],"socially":[302],"environmentally":[304],"sensitive":[305],"regions.":[307,346],"quantification":[309],"such":[311],"over":[313],"time":[314],"can":[315],"help":[316],"researchers":[317],"policymakers":[319],"better":[321],"understand":[322],"shifting":[324],"geographies":[325],"geopolitics":[327],"mining,":[331],"environmental":[333],"dynamics":[334],"areas,":[337],"particularities":[340]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}