{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4224308347","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044","title":"Combining Spectral, Spatial-Contextual, and Structural Information in Multispectral UAV Data for Spruce Crown Delineation","display_name":"Combining Spectral, Spatial-Contextual, and Structural Information in Multispectral UAV Data for Spruce Crown Delineation","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-04-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4224308347","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14092044","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/9/2044/pdf?version=1650803284","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/9/2044/pdf?version=1650803284","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5020945508","display_name":"Aravind Harikumar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9637-7456"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Aravind Harikumar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9637-7456","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5107269786","display_name":"Petra D\u2019Odorico","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9954-8508"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2800262456","display_name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research","ror":"https://ror.org/04bs5yc70","country_code":"CH","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799323385","https://openalex.org/I2800262456"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Petra D\u2019Odorico","raw_affiliation_strings":["Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9954-8508","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2800262456"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052106264","display_name":"Ingo Ensminger","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9014-2499"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ingo Ensminger","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada","Graduate Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada","Graduate Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9014-2499","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5020945508"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":0.3348,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.49775627,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"9","first_page":"2044","last_page":"2044"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11211","display_name":"3D Surveying and Cultural Heritage","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1907","display_name":"Geology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10111","display_name":"Remote Sensing in Agriculture","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2303","display_name":"Ecology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multispectral-image","display_name":"Multispectral image","score":0.8163945078849792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.7284278869628906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/crown","display_name":"Crown (dentistry)","score":0.6023718118667603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.4834328889846802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/photogrammetry","display_name":"Photogrammetry","score":0.47460001707077026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.47139742970466614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spatial-analysis","display_name":"Spatial analysis","score":0.4274235665798187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/environmental-science","display_name":"Environmental science","score":0.4010246992111206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.24193915724754333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.234162837266922}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173163844","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1761440","display_name":"Multispectral image","level":2,"score":0.8163945078849792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.7284278869628906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778400979","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143720","display_name":"Crown (dentistry)","level":2,"score":0.6023718118667603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4834328889846802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117455697","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190149","display_name":"Photogrammetry","level":2,"score":0.47460001707077026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.47139742970466614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159620131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1938983","display_name":"Spatial analysis","level":2,"score":0.4274235665798187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.4010246992111206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.24193915724754333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.234162837266922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199343813","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12128","display_name":"Dentistry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14092044","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/9/2044/pdf?version=1650803284","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:464f048f68b04783b5402cb430e64777","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/464f048f68b04783b5402cb430e64777","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 14, Iss 9, p 2044 (2022)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:dora:wsl_30557","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl%3A30557","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401379","display_name":"DORA WSL (Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2800262456","host_organization_name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2800262456"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2072-4292/14/9/2044/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:utoronto.scholaris.ca:1807/111292","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/1807/111292","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400261","display_name":"TSpace (University of Toronto)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","host_organization_name":"University of Toronto","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14092044","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092044","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/9/2044/pdf?version=1650803284","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Life in Land","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","score":0.7400000095367432}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4224308347.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":40,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1510735036","https://openalex.org/W1522525389","https://openalex.org/W1959229705","https://openalex.org/W1972119192","https://openalex.org/W1978683887","https://openalex.org/W1984839778","https://openalex.org/W1984956136","https://openalex.org/W1987422079","https://openalex.org/W1993956929","https://openalex.org/W1994434338","https://openalex.org/W2011976351","https://openalex.org/W2014681113","https://openalex.org/W2023695105","https://openalex.org/W2054397552","https://openalex.org/W2080225150","https://openalex.org/W2125899407","https://openalex.org/W2138126656","https://openalex.org/W2159105546","https://openalex.org/W2162842531","https://openalex.org/W2166479727","https://openalex.org/W2169059815","https://openalex.org/W2178471458","https://openalex.org/W2179423516","https://openalex.org/W2206769709","https://openalex.org/W2315994349","https://openalex.org/W2397741397","https://openalex.org/W2425734797","https://openalex.org/W2471962767","https://openalex.org/W2591466624","https://openalex.org/W2752278344","https://openalex.org/W2807092502","https://openalex.org/W2891309301","https://openalex.org/W2912203297","https://openalex.org/W2995577867","https://openalex.org/W3005444277","https://openalex.org/W3011957757","https://openalex.org/W4205681049","https://openalex.org/W4238767840","https://openalex.org/W6653430822","https://openalex.org/W6658825147"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4318664220","https://openalex.org/W2771047279","https://openalex.org/W2365572566","https://openalex.org/W4388409104","https://openalex.org/W2394068580","https://openalex.org/W2525880111","https://openalex.org/W2369515111","https://openalex.org/W2051732542","https://openalex.org/W2124951708","https://openalex.org/W1556261626"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Precise":[0],"delineation":[1,51,73,87,121,155],"of":[2,46,117,139,148,157,198],"individual":[3,84,93],"tree":[4,49,85],"crowns":[5,95],"is":[6],"critical":[7],"for":[8,174],"accurate":[9],"forest":[10,127],"biophysical":[11,205],"parameter":[12],"estimation,":[13],"species":[14],"classification,":[15],"and":[16,43,58,62,81,106,141,171,190],"ecosystem":[17],"modelling.":[18],"Multispectral":[19],"optical":[20,36],"remote":[21],"sensors":[22],"mounted":[23],"on":[24,55],"low-flying":[25],"unmanned":[26],"aerial":[27],"vehicles":[28],"(UAVs)":[29],"can":[30],"rapidly":[31],"collect":[32],"very-high-resolution":[33],"(VHR)":[34],"photogrammetric":[35,67],"data":[37],"that":[38],"contain":[39],"the":[40,60,78,98,115,118,142,152,158,175,188,191,196,199],"spectral,":[41,79],"spatial,":[42],"structural":[44,63,82],"information":[45,57,64],"trees.":[47],"State-of-the-art":[48],"crown":[50,72,86,120,154],"approaches":[52],"rely":[53],"mostly":[54],"spectral":[56,104],"underexploit":[59],"spatial-contextual":[61],"in":[65,71,109,128,166],"VHR":[66,110],"multispectral":[68,111],"data,":[69],"resulting":[70],"errors.":[74],"Here,":[75],"we":[76],"propose":[77],"spatial-contextual,":[80],"information-based":[83],"(S3-ITD)":[88],"method,":[89],"which":[90],"accurately":[91,203],"delineates":[92],"spruce":[94,126],"by":[96,168],"minimizing":[97],"undesirable":[99],"effects":[100],"due":[101],"to":[102,202],"intracrown":[103],"variance":[105],"nonuniform":[107],"illumination/shadowing":[108],"data.":[112],"We":[113],"evaluate":[114],"performance":[116,156],"S3-ITD":[119,159,200],"method":[122,160,201],"over":[123,135,161],"a":[124],"white":[125],"Quebec,":[129],"Canada.":[130],"The":[131,164],"highest":[132],"mean":[133,144],"intersection":[134],"union":[136],"(IoU)":[137],"index":[138],"0.83,":[140],"lowest":[143],"crown-area":[145],"difference":[146],"(CAD)":[147],"0.14":[149],"m2,":[150],"proves":[151],"superior":[153],"state-of-the-art":[162],"methods.":[163],"reduction":[165],"error":[167],"2.4":[169],"cm":[170,173],"1.0":[172],"allometrically":[176],"derived":[177],"diameter":[178],"at":[179],"breast":[180],"height":[181],"(DBH)":[182],"estimates":[183],"compared":[184],"with":[185],"those":[186],"from":[187],"WS-ITD":[189],"BF-ITD":[192],"approaches,":[193],"respectively,":[194],"demonstrates":[195],"effectiveness":[197],"estimate":[204],"parameters.":[206]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-22T06:13:13.366637","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}