{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4210987136","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806","title":"A Voxel-Based Individual Tree Stem Detection Method Using Airborne LiDAR in Mature Northeastern U.S. Forests","display_name":"A Voxel-Based Individual Tree Stem Detection Method Using Airborne LiDAR in Mature Northeastern U.S. Forests","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-02-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4210987136","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14030806","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/3/806/pdf?version=1644478794","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/3/806/pdf?version=1644478794","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039242532","display_name":"Jeff L. Hershey","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0453-8065"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jeff L. Hershey","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037891313","display_name":"Marc E. McDill","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1879-7973"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marc E. McDill","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecosystem Science & Management, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecosystem Science & Management, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009167858","display_name":"Douglas A. Miller","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9902-2423"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Douglas A. Miller","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geography, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geography, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5038474396","display_name":"Brennan Holderman","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Brennan Holderman","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ecosystem Science & Management, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ecosystem Science & Management, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006496881","display_name":"Judd H. Michael","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9474-5913"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Judd H. Michael","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Penn State University, State College, PA 16802, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5039242532"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":0.511,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.56906182,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"3","first_page":"806","last_page":"806"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11880","display_name":"Forest ecology and management","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2309","display_name":"Nature and Landscape Conservation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12713","display_name":"Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Studies","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1109","display_name":"Insect Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/canopy","display_name":"Canopy","score":0.734734058380127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/crown","display_name":"Crown (dentistry)","score":0.6987835168838501},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.5924105644226074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deciduous","display_name":"Deciduous","score":0.5769195556640625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/diameter-at-breast-height","display_name":"Diameter at breast height","score":0.5412622690200806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lidar","display_name":"Lidar","score":0.5054059028625488},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/forestry","display_name":"Forestry","score":0.4852440357208252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hardwood","display_name":"Hardwood","score":0.4852140247821808},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.4685225188732147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/false-positive-paradox","display_name":"False positive paradox","score":0.449182391166687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.3796195983886719},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/environmental-science","display_name":"Environmental science","score":0.36548301577568054},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.2888565957546234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.18548542261123657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ecology","display_name":"Ecology","score":0.16537106037139893},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biology","display_name":"Biology","score":0.15949785709381104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.13566523790359497}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101000010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5033434","display_name":"Canopy","level":2,"score":0.734734058380127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778400979","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143720","display_name":"Crown (dentistry)","level":2,"score":0.6987835168838501},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.5924105644226074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33283694","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1131316","display_name":"Deciduous","level":2,"score":0.5769195556640625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58330081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q973582","display_name":"Diameter at breast height","level":2,"score":0.5412622690200806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51399673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q504027","display_name":"Lidar","level":2,"score":0.5054059028625488},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97137747","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q38112","display_name":"Forestry","level":1,"score":0.4852440357208252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780674770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2266509","display_name":"Hardwood","level":2,"score":0.4852140247821808},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.4685225188732147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64869954","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1859747","display_name":"False positive paradox","level":2,"score":0.449182391166687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3796195983886719},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.36548301577568054},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.2888565957546234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.18548542261123657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.16537106037139893},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.15949785709381104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.13566523790359497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199343813","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12128","display_name":"Dentistry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14030806","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/3/806/pdf?version=1644478794","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:7b1283b0ec794b4d86285a44addfd050","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/7b1283b0ec794b4d86285a44addfd050","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 14, Iss 3, p 806 (2022)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2072-4292/14/3/806/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing; Volume 14; Issue 3; Pages: 806","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs14030806","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030806","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/14/3/806/pdf?version=1644478794","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Life in Land","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","score":0.7799999713897705}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4655748752","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"PEN04720","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332299","funder_display_name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332299","display_name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/05qx3fv49"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4210987136.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4210987136.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":43,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W143514521","https://openalex.org/W1492020934","https://openalex.org/W1893090633","https://openalex.org/W1990763871","https://openalex.org/W1994585903","https://openalex.org/W1996812355","https://openalex.org/W2001381357","https://openalex.org/W2021793377","https://openalex.org/W2033827163","https://openalex.org/W2040181110","https://openalex.org/W2040827641","https://openalex.org/W2065030504","https://openalex.org/W2066017924","https://openalex.org/W2073768849","https://openalex.org/W2076712994","https://openalex.org/W2080157231","https://openalex.org/W2087667361","https://openalex.org/W2098084344","https://openalex.org/W2101907415","https://openalex.org/W2124308851","https://openalex.org/W2131058553","https://openalex.org/W2132097058","https://openalex.org/W2133160971","https://openalex.org/W2159352923","https://openalex.org/W2165044919","https://openalex.org/W2165148193","https://openalex.org/W2342299051","https://openalex.org/W2425812835","https://openalex.org/W2473991816","https://openalex.org/W2482464033","https://openalex.org/W2541777388","https://openalex.org/W2582743722","https://openalex.org/W2810813638","https://openalex.org/W2871665063","https://openalex.org/W2944108734","https://openalex.org/W2951297504","https://openalex.org/W2952506025","https://openalex.org/W2987129746","https://openalex.org/W3027600591","https://openalex.org/W6605849744","https://openalex.org/W6649319212","https://openalex.org/W6678310039","https://openalex.org/W6753041831"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2057108775","https://openalex.org/W980909052","https://openalex.org/W2413769417","https://openalex.org/W2403569092","https://openalex.org/W5966008","https://openalex.org/W2074882516","https://openalex.org/W2109852782","https://openalex.org/W884602397","https://openalex.org/W2079450250","https://openalex.org/W2411372627"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,118],"paper":[1],"describes":[2],"a":[3,234,338],"new":[4,287,312],"method":[5,157,289,315],"for":[6,217,321],"detecting":[7],"individual":[8,39,244],"tree":[9,40,65,113,129,258,269,313],"stems":[10],"that":[11,221,296],"was":[12,158,196,233,249],"designed":[13],"to":[14,24,89,105,123,209,318],"perform":[15],"well":[16],"in":[17,38,45,58,86,101,115,205,236,328],"the":[18,25,79,90,106,110,191,215,226,238,252,262,330],"challenging":[19],"hardwood-dominated,":[20],"mixed-species":[21],"forests":[22,50],"common":[23],"northeastern":[26],"U.S.,":[27],"where":[28],"canopy":[29,111,147],"height-based":[30],"methods":[31,73,150],"have":[32,74,94],"proven":[33],"unreliable.":[34],"Most":[35],"prior":[36],"research":[37],"detection":[41,314],"has":[42,142,316],"been":[43],"performed":[44],"homogenous":[46],"coniferous":[47],"or":[48,219],"conifer-dominated":[49],"with":[51,278],"limited":[52],"hardwood":[53,82],"presence.":[54],"The":[55,137,156,264],"study":[56],"area":[57],"central":[59],"Pennsylvania,":[60],"United":[61],"States,":[62],"includes":[63],"17+":[64],"species":[66,83],"and":[67,112,126,151,171,179,183,246,266,274,303,306,327,333],"contains":[68],"over":[69,144,279],"90%":[70],"hardwoods.":[71],"Existing":[72],"shown":[75],"reduced":[76],"performance":[77,307],"as":[78,198],"proportion":[80],"of":[81,109,175,181,243,256,281,301],"increases,":[84],"due":[85,104],"large":[87,184],"part":[88],"crown-focused":[91],"approaches":[92,97],"they":[93],"employed.":[95],"Top-down":[96],"are":[98],"not":[99],"reliable":[100],"deciduous":[102],"stands":[103],"inherent":[107],"complexity":[108,119],"crowns":[114],"such":[116],"stands.":[117],"makes":[120],"it":[121,172],"difficult":[122],"segment":[124],"trees":[125,178,186,213,220,305],"accurately":[127],"predict":[128],"stem":[130],"locations":[131,259],"based":[132],"on":[133,160],"detected":[134,173],"crown":[135],"segments.":[136],"proposed":[138],"voxel":[139],"column-based":[140],"approach":[141],"advantages":[143],"both":[145,322],"traditional":[146,323],"height":[148,169],"model-based":[149],"computationally":[152],"demanding":[153],"point-based":[154],"solutions.":[155],"tested":[159],"1125":[161],"reference":[162,177,304],"trees,":[163],"\u226510":[164],"cm":[165,188],"diameter":[166],"at":[167],"breast":[168],"(DBH),":[170],"68%":[174],"all":[176],"87%":[180],"medium":[182],"(sawtimber-sized)":[185],"\u226528":[187],"DBH.":[189],"Significantly,":[190],"commission":[192,247],"rate":[193],"(false":[194],"predictions)":[195],"negligible":[197],"most":[199],"raw":[200],"false":[201,231],"positives":[202,232],"were":[203,222,271],"confirmed":[204],"follow-up":[206],"field":[207],"visits":[208],"be":[210,319],"either":[211],"small":[212],"below":[214],"threshold":[216],"recording":[218],"otherwise":[223],"missed":[224],"during":[225],"initial":[227],"ground":[228],"survey.":[229],"Minimizing":[230],"priority":[235],"tuning":[237],"method.":[239,263],"Follow-up":[240],"in-situ":[241],"evaluation":[242],"omission":[245],"instances":[248],"facilitated":[250],"by":[251,261,337],"high":[253],"spatial":[254],"accuracy":[255],"predicted":[257,302],"generated":[260],"mean":[265],"maximum":[267],"predicted-to-reference":[268],"distances":[270],"0.59":[272],"m":[273],"2.99":[275],"m,":[276],"respectively,":[277],"80%":[280],"matches":[282],"within":[283],"&lt;1":[284],"m.":[285],"A":[286],"tree-matching":[288],"utilizing":[290],"linear":[291],"integer":[292],"programming":[293],"is":[294],"presented":[295],"enables":[297],"rigorous,":[298],"repeatable":[299],"matching":[300],"evaluation.":[308],"Results":[309],"indicate":[310],"this":[311],"potential":[317],"operationalized":[320],"forest":[324,340],"management":[325],"activities":[326],"providing":[329],"more":[331],"frequent":[332],"scalable":[334],"inventories":[335],"required":[336],"growing":[339],"carbon":[341],"offsets":[342],"industry.":[343]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
