{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3113769242","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","title":"On the Performance of One-Stage and Two-Stage Object Detectors in Autonomous Vehicles Using Camera Data","display_name":"On the Performance of One-Stage and Two-Stage Object Detectors in Autonomous Vehicles Using Camera Data","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-12-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3113769242","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","mag":"3113769242"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs13010089","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/1/89/pdf?version=1609321180","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/1/89/pdf?version=1609321180","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059940512","display_name":"Manuel Carranza-Garc\u00eda","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Manuel Carranza-Garc\u00eda","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043825135","display_name":"Jes\u00fas Torres-Mateo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6885-9669"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jes\u00fas Torres-Mateo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070105516","display_name":"Pedro Lara-Ben\u00edtez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0457-8099"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pedro Lara-Ben\u00edtez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5072250611","display_name":"Jorge Garc\u00eda\u2013Guti\u00e9rrez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1300-4647"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jorge Garc\u00eda-Guti\u00e9rrez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Computer Science, University of Sevilla, ES-41012 Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5059940512"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":10.5003,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":260,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9875313,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"1","first_page":"89","last_page":"89"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10331","display_name":"Video Surveillance and Tracking Methods","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.9861000180244446,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8647268414497375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/benchmark","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","score":0.6802371144294739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6616374850273132},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-detection","display_name":"Object detection","score":0.6536530256271362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/detector","display_name":"Detector","score":0.6076449751853943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5571079850196838},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.5549865961074829},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.45730358362197876},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transfer-of-learning","display_name":"Transfer of learning","score":0.4493992328643799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.44489237666130066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stage","display_name":"Stage (stratigraphy)","score":0.43246713280677795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.426836222410202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/real-time-computing","display_name":"Real-time computing","score":0.35786551237106323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.2801257371902466}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8647268414497375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185798385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161707","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","level":2,"score":0.6802371144294739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6616374850273132},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776151529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3045304","display_name":"Object detection","level":3,"score":0.6536530256271362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94915269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1834857","display_name":"Detector","level":2,"score":0.6076449751853943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5571079850196838},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.5549865961074829},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.45730358362197876},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150899416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820378","display_name":"Transfer of learning","level":2,"score":0.4493992328643799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.44489237666130066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146357865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1123245","display_name":"Stage (stratigraphy)","level":2,"score":0.43246713280677795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.426836222410202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.35786551237106323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.2801257371902466},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13280743","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131089","display_name":"Geodesy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187736073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920921","display_name":"Management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs13010089","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/1/89/pdf?version=1609321180","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:3f54e58676444036ab78add5894167a6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/3f54e58676444036ab78add5894167a6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 13, Iss 1, p 89 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:idus.us.es:11441/130053","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://idus.us.es/handle//11441/130053","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400333","display_name":"idUS (Universidad de Sevilla)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","host_organization_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2072-4292/13/1/89/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing; Volume 13; Issue 1; Pages: 89","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs13010089","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010089","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/1/89/pdf?version=1609321180","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G273497778","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"TIN2017-88209-C2-2-R","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321837","funder_display_name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda y Competitividad"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3120993914","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"TIN2017-88209-C2","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321837","funder_display_name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda y Competitividad"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4600676215","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"US-126334","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326754","funder_display_name":"Junta de Andaluc\u00eda"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5688728920","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"P18-RT-2778","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326754","funder_display_name":"Junta de Andaluc\u00eda"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320309480","display_name":"Nvidia","ror":"https://ror.org/03jdj4y14"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321837","display_name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda y Competitividad","ror":"https://ror.org/034900433"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326754","display_name":"Junta de Andaluc\u00eda","ror":"https://ror.org/01jem9c82"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3113769242.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3113769242.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":40,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W639708223","https://openalex.org/W1686810756","https://openalex.org/W1861492603","https://openalex.org/W2102605133","https://openalex.org/W2117539524","https://openalex.org/W2150066425","https://openalex.org/W2193145675","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2395611524","https://openalex.org/W2549139847","https://openalex.org/W2557728737","https://openalex.org/W2558580397","https://openalex.org/W2565639579","https://openalex.org/W2570343428","https://openalex.org/W2610165754","https://openalex.org/W2786808285","https://openalex.org/W2792919579","https://openalex.org/W2884561390","https://openalex.org/W2886335102","https://openalex.org/W2887850625","https://openalex.org/W2914272072","https://openalex.org/W2918228810","https://openalex.org/W2919115771","https://openalex.org/W2928165649","https://openalex.org/W2950498179","https://openalex.org/W2954174912","https://openalex.org/W2963163009","https://openalex.org/W2963927307","https://openalex.org/W2964241181","https://openalex.org/W2982770724","https://openalex.org/W3000166127","https://openalex.org/W3008115128","https://openalex.org/W3027021899","https://openalex.org/W3035172746","https://openalex.org/W3035574168","https://openalex.org/W3087567483","https://openalex.org/W3089790585","https://openalex.org/W3092299303","https://openalex.org/W3106250896","https://openalex.org/W6761176859"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4206357785","https://openalex.org/W4281381188","https://openalex.org/W3192840557","https://openalex.org/W2951211570","https://openalex.org/W4390721878","https://openalex.org/W4375928479","https://openalex.org/W3167935049","https://openalex.org/W3023427754","https://openalex.org/W3131673289","https://openalex.org/W4393011546"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Object":[0],"detection":[1,59,183],"using":[2,37,112],"remote":[3],"sensing":[4],"data":[5],"is":[6,30,145,209],"a":[7,40,62,78,210],"key":[8],"task":[9],"of":[10,14,56,77,119,131,154,184],"the":[11,54,73,128,135,140,146,151,165,182,191,205],"perception":[12],"systems":[13,60],"self-driving":[15],"vehicles.":[16],"While":[17],"many":[18],"generic":[19],"deep":[20,92],"learning":[21,93,114],"architectures":[22],"have":[23],"been":[24],"proposed":[25],"for":[26],"this":[27,48,132],"problem,":[28],"there":[29],"little":[31],"guidance":[32],"on":[33,61],"their":[34],"suitability":[35],"when":[36],"them":[38],"in":[39,117,175,181],"particular":[41],"scenario":[42],"such":[43],"as":[44],"autonomous":[45],"driving.":[46],"In":[47],"work,":[49],"we":[50,138],"aim":[51],"to":[52,127,200,214],"assess":[53],"performance":[55],"existing":[57,148],"2D":[58],"multi-class":[63],"problem":[64],"(vehicles,":[65],"pedestrians,":[66],"and":[67,86,88,99,106,115,122,219],"cyclists)":[68],"with":[69,124,216],"images":[70,199],"obtained":[71],"from":[72],"on-board":[74],"camera":[75],"sensors":[76],"car.":[79],"We":[80],"evaluate":[81],"several":[82],"one-stage":[83,155,173],"(RetinaNet,":[84],"FCOS,":[85],"YOLOv3)":[87],"two-stage":[89,161],"(Faster":[90],"R-CNN)":[91],"meta-architectures":[94],"under":[95],"different":[96],"image":[97],"resolutions":[98],"feature":[100],"extractors":[101],"(ResNet,":[102],"ResNeXt,":[103],"Res2Net,":[104],"DarkNet,":[105],"MobileNet).":[107],"These":[108],"models":[109,171],"are":[110],"trained":[111],"transfer":[113],"compared":[116],"terms":[118],"both":[120],"precision":[121,218],"efficiency,":[123],"special":[125],"attention":[126],"real-time":[129,202],"requirements":[130],"context.":[133],"For":[134],"experimental":[136],"study,":[137],"use":[139],"Waymo":[141],"Open":[142],"Dataset,":[143],"which":[144],"largest":[147],"benchmark.":[149],"Despite":[150],"rising":[152],"popularity":[153],"detectors,":[156],"our":[157],"findings":[158],"show":[159],"that":[160],"detectors":[162,174],"still":[163],"provide":[164],"most":[166],"robust":[167],"performance.":[168],"Faster":[169,187],"R-CNN":[170,188],"outperform":[172],"accuracy,":[176],"being":[177],"also":[178],"more":[179],"reliable":[180],"minority":[185],"classes.":[186],"Res2Net-101":[189],"achieves":[190],"best":[192],"speed/accuracy":[193],"tradeoff":[194],"but":[195],"needs":[196],"lower":[197,220],"resolution":[198],"reach":[201],"speed.":[203],"Furthermore,":[204],"anchor-free":[206],"FCOS":[207],"detector":[208],"slightly":[211],"faster":[212],"alternative":[213],"RetinaNet,":[215],"similar":[217],"memory":[221],"usage.":[222]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":62},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":76},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":44},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":44},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":19}],"updated_date":"2026-04-05T17:49:38.594831","created_date":"2021-01-05T00:00:00"}