{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2952142982","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","title":"Individual Tree-Crown Detection in RGB Imagery Using Semi-Supervised Deep Learning Neural Networks","display_name":"Individual Tree-Crown Detection in RGB Imagery Using Semi-Supervised Deep Learning Neural Networks","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-06-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2952142982","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","mag":"2952142982"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs11111309","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/11/1309/pdf?version=1559367127","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/11/1309/pdf?version=1559367127","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090854014","display_name":"Ben Weinstein","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2176-7935"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ben G. Weinstein","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5001850958","display_name":"Sergio Marconi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8096-754X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sergio Marconi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071762860","display_name":"Stephanie Bohlman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4935-7321"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stephanie Bohlman","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079676776","display_name":"Alina Zare","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4847-7604"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alina Zare","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060079821","display_name":"Ethan P. White","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ethan White","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5090854014"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"apc_paid":{"value":2500,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2707},"fwci":15.4448,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":267,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99684252,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":"11","first_page":"1309","last_page":"1309"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11164","display_name":"Remote Sensing and LiDAR Applications","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2305","display_name":"Environmental Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10111","display_name":"Remote Sensing in Agriculture","score":0.9990000128746033,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2303","display_name":"Ecology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10895","display_name":"Species Distribution and Climate Change","score":0.9937999844551086,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2302","display_name":"Ecological Modeling"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7437076568603516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7310813069343567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rgb-color-model","display_name":"RGB color model","score":0.5843700766563416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.5682700276374817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5477041006088257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/leverage","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","score":0.5001764297485352},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.46076416969299316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3873193562030792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.3858907222747803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/remote-sensing","display_name":"Remote sensing","score":0.37120431661605835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.12047246098518372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.07424110174179077}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7437076568603516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7310813069343567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82990744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166194","display_name":"RGB color model","level":2,"score":0.5843700766563416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.5682700276374817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5477041006088257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153083717","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6535263","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.5001764297485352},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.46076416969299316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3873193562030792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3858907222747803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.37120431661605835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.12047246098518372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.07424110174179077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs11111309","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/11/1309/pdf?version=1559367127","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:90564257bb934538855e7ebc565dbacb","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/90564257bb934538855e7ebc565dbacb","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing, Vol 11, Iss 11, p 1309 (2019)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2072-4292/11/11/1309/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing; Volume 11; Issue 11; Pages: 1309","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/rs11111309","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111309","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/11/11/1309/pdf?version=1559367127","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S43295729","display_name":"Remote Sensing","issn_l":"2072-4292","issn":["2072-4292"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Remote Sensing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","score":0.7599999904632568,"display_name":"Life in Land"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1569370749","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FZT 118","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","funder_display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1727973227","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DFG FZT 118","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","funder_display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3506446053","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"GBMF4563","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306202","funder_display_name":"Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4112279591","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"DFG FZT 118","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330723","funder_display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr integrative Biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5632166549","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FZT 118","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330723","funder_display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr integrative Biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5766665130","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"McIntire-Stennis","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306114","funder_display_name":"U.S. Department of Agriculture"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8330397625","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Funding","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","funder_display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306114","display_name":"U.S. Department of Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/01na82s61"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306202","display_name":"Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/006wxqw41"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","ror":"https://ror.org/018mejw64"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330723","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr integrative Biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332299","display_name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/05qx3fv49"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2952142982.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2952142982.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W639708223","https://openalex.org/W1619870188","https://openalex.org/W1983935692","https://openalex.org/W2026337641","https://openalex.org/W2065030504","https://openalex.org/W2088049833","https://openalex.org/W2096002337","https://openalex.org/W2117499988","https://openalex.org/W2138126656","https://openalex.org/W2165148193","https://openalex.org/W2174505781","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2315994349","https://openalex.org/W2440986827","https://openalex.org/W2473991816","https://openalex.org/W2531576514","https://openalex.org/W2541777388","https://openalex.org/W2565950292","https://openalex.org/W2566956493","https://openalex.org/W2596873134","https://openalex.org/W2602986670","https://openalex.org/W2621663019","https://openalex.org/W2764034829","https://openalex.org/W2767556927","https://openalex.org/W2768975974","https://openalex.org/W2782522152","https://openalex.org/W2799461311","https://openalex.org/W2799703355","https://openalex.org/W2810813638","https://openalex.org/W2883271464","https://openalex.org/W2908563588","https://openalex.org/W2950642167","https://openalex.org/W2963150697","https://openalex.org/W2963351448","https://openalex.org/W2963727135","https://openalex.org/W3102619772","https://openalex.org/W6620707391","https://openalex.org/W6718470890","https://openalex.org/W6912532504"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4375867731","https://openalex.org/W2611989081","https://openalex.org/W2787993192","https://openalex.org/W2731899572","https://openalex.org/W4230611425","https://openalex.org/W4294635752","https://openalex.org/W4304166257","https://openalex.org/W2486460843","https://openalex.org/W2168109476","https://openalex.org/W1968121071"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Remote":[0],"sensing":[1,56,238],"can":[2,69,113,239],"transform":[3],"the":[4,18,96,110,121,144,160,178,195,209,223,226,259],"speed,":[5],"scale,":[6],"and":[7,11,57,74,257],"cost":[8],"of":[9,128,162,176,187,192,206,215,219,243],"biodiversity":[10],"forestry":[12],"surveys.":[13],"Data":[14],"acquisition":[15],"currently":[16],"outpaces":[17],"ability":[19],"to":[20,79],"identify":[21],"individual":[22],"organisms":[23],"in":[24,35,54,95,143,169],"high":[25,263],"resolution":[26],"imagery.":[27],"We":[28,63,118,133],"outline":[29],"an":[30,87,140,173,182,201],"approach":[31,137,234],"for":[32,85,194,208,251],"identifying":[33],"tree-crowns":[34],"RGB":[36,89,131],"imagery":[37],"while":[38,138],"using":[39,124,139,155,254],"a":[40,51,125,153,190,216,241],"semi-supervised":[41,231],"deep":[42,66,232],"learning":[43,67,233],"detection":[44,91,99,204],"network.":[45],"Individual":[46],"crown":[47,90,185],"delineation":[48,78],"has":[49],"been":[50],"long-standing":[52],"challenge":[53],"remote":[55,237],"available":[58],"algorithms":[59],"produce":[60],"mixed":[61],"results.":[62],"show":[64,151],"that":[65,82,152,236],"models":[68,261],"leverage":[70],"existing":[71],"Light":[72],"Detection":[73],"Ranging":[75],"(LIDAR)-based":[76],"unsupervised":[77,98,255],"generate":[80],"trees":[81,158,165,221],"are":[83],"used":[84],"training":[86,103,245,253],"initial":[88,115,122,227,252],"model.":[92,229],"Despite":[93],"limitations":[94],"original":[97],"approach,":[100],"this":[101],"noisy":[102,249],"data":[104,246,250],"may":[105],"contain":[106],"information":[107],"from":[108],"which":[109],"neural":[111],"network":[112],"learn":[114],"tree":[116,184,203],"features.":[117],"then":[119],"refine":[120],"model":[123,154,180,199],"small":[126,217],"number":[127,218],"higher-quality":[129],"hand-annotated":[130,164,220],"images.":[132],"validate":[134],"our":[135],"proposed":[136],"open-canopy":[141],"site":[142],"National":[145],"Ecological":[146],"Observation":[147],"Network.":[148],"Our":[149],"results":[150],"434,551":[156],"self-generated":[157],"with":[159,189,262],"addition":[161,214],"2848":[163],"yields":[166],"accurate":[167],"predictions":[168],"natural":[170],"landscapes.":[171],"Using":[172],"intersection-over-union":[174],"threshold":[175],"0.5,":[177],"full":[179],"had":[181,200],"average":[183,202],"recall":[186],"0.69,":[188],"precision":[191],"0.61":[193],"visually-annotated":[196],"data.":[197,266],"The":[198,213],"rate":[205],"0.82":[207],"field":[210],"collected":[211],"stems.":[212],"improved":[222],"performance":[224],"over":[225],"self-supervised":[228],"This":[230],"demonstrates":[235],"overcome":[240],"lack":[242],"labeled":[244,265],"by":[247],"generating":[248],"methods":[256],"retraining":[258],"resulting":[260],"quality":[264]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":44},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":52},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":30},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":38},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":53},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":36},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":8}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
