{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3081343139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","title":"Classifying Intelligence in Machines: A Taxonomy of Intelligent Control","display_name":"Classifying Intelligence in Machines: A Taxonomy of Intelligent Control","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-08-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3081343139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","mag":"3081343139"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/robotics9030064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2218-6581/9/3/64/pdf?version=1598001493","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232487","display_name":"Robotics","issn_l":"2218-6581","issn":["2218-6581"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Robotics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2218-6581/9/3/64/pdf?version=1598001493","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5074200616","display_name":"Callum Wilson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3736-1355"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Callum Wilson","raw_affiliation_strings":["Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3736-1355","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007104136","display_name":"Francesco Marchetti","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4552-0467"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Francesco Marchetti","raw_affiliation_strings":["Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4552-0467","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012884329","display_name":"Marilena Di Carlo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5046-3028"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marilena Di Carlo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5046-3028","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018647644","display_name":"Annalisa Riccardi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5305-9450"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Annalisa Riccardi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5305-9450","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015624888","display_name":"Edmondo Minisci","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9951-8528"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Edmondo Minisci","raw_affiliation_strings":["Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9951-8528","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Intelligent Computational Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5074200616"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"fwci":1.2061,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":18,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.84021602,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"3","first_page":"64","last_page":"64"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10906","display_name":"AI-based Problem Solving and Planning","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10906","display_name":"AI-based Problem Solving and Planning","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10820","display_name":"Fuzzy Logic and Control Systems","score":0.9803000092506409,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10876","display_name":"Fault Detection and Control Systems","score":0.9793000221252441,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/taxonomy","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","score":0.6988790035247803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptability","display_name":"Adaptability","score":0.6904307007789612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6766154766082764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intelligent-control","display_name":"Intelligent control","score":0.5793007016181946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5648130774497986},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intelligent-decision-support-system","display_name":"Intelligent decision support system","score":0.5549262762069702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.4809693396091461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variety","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","score":0.4781397581100464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.46191906929016113},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intelligent-agent","display_name":"Intelligent agent","score":0.4281320571899414}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58642233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","level":2,"score":0.6988790035247803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177606310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5674297","display_name":"Adaptability","level":2,"score":0.6904307007789612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6766154766082764},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82327864","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q835100","display_name":"Intelligent control","level":2,"score":0.5793007016181946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5648130774497986},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56397880","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6044094","display_name":"Intelligent decision support system","level":2,"score":0.5549262762069702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4809693396091461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.4781397581100464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.46191906929016113},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74072328","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1142726","display_name":"Intelligent agent","level":2,"score":0.4281320571899414},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/robotics9030064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2218-6581/9/3/64/pdf?version=1598001493","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232487","display_name":"Robotics","issn_l":"2218-6581","issn":["2218-6581"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Robotics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:strathprints.strath.ac.uk:73672","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/view/author/910807.html>","pdf_url":"https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/73672/7/Wilson_etal_Robotics_2020_Classifying_intelligence_in_machines.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402226","display_name":"Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","host_organization_name":"University of Strathclyde","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:29ae996967a644e092aaaab4db1dcd59","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/29ae996967a644e092aaaab4db1dcd59","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Robotics, Vol 9, Iss 3, p 64 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2218-6581/9/3/64/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Robotics; Volume 9; Issue 3; Pages: 64","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/robotics9030064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics9030064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2218-6581/9/3/64/pdf?version=1598001493","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232487","display_name":"Robotics","issn_l":"2218-6581","issn":["2218-6581"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Robotics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.4300000071525574,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2563360540","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"4000124916/18/NL/CRS/hh","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320318240","funder_display_name":"European Space Agency"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320318240","display_name":"European Space Agency","ror":"https://ror.org/03wd9za21"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3081343139.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3081343139.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":66,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1968110697","https://openalex.org/W1969705022","https://openalex.org/W1970090588","https://openalex.org/W1977686803","https://openalex.org/W1979027790","https://openalex.org/W1980516134","https://openalex.org/W1981569202","https://openalex.org/W1983321650","https://openalex.org/W1986024064","https://openalex.org/W1997175741","https://openalex.org/W2016600127","https://openalex.org/W2019207321","https://openalex.org/W2020778248","https://openalex.org/W2021242462","https://openalex.org/W2021649429","https://openalex.org/W2024360601","https://openalex.org/W2032030411","https://openalex.org/W2034903360","https://openalex.org/W2044987129","https://openalex.org/W2049192181","https://openalex.org/W2053103650","https://openalex.org/W2062214902","https://openalex.org/W2062219372","https://openalex.org/W2067802406","https://openalex.org/W2070537490","https://openalex.org/W2080589508","https://openalex.org/W2087988934","https://openalex.org/W2104195121","https://openalex.org/W2104557774","https://openalex.org/W2106115006","https://openalex.org/W2107321839","https://openalex.org/W2108380954","https://openalex.org/W2109293471","https://openalex.org/W2113021957","https://openalex.org/W2115444189","https://openalex.org/W2117143240","https://openalex.org/W2120691427","https://openalex.org/W2121521309","https://openalex.org/W2129841848","https://openalex.org/W2131339080","https://openalex.org/W2133354309","https://openalex.org/W2147134881","https://openalex.org/W2150127332","https://openalex.org/W2155876893","https://openalex.org/W2158800743","https://openalex.org/W2162367386","https://openalex.org/W2163549837","https://openalex.org/W2170944339","https://openalex.org/W2181831052","https://openalex.org/W2312401069","https://openalex.org/W2322959371","https://openalex.org/W2323449821","https://openalex.org/W2502854152","https://openalex.org/W2512244817","https://openalex.org/W2785600103","https://openalex.org/W2896595400","https://openalex.org/W2897763182","https://openalex.org/W2916772767","https://openalex.org/W2921263812","https://openalex.org/W2963086459","https://openalex.org/W2965269125","https://openalex.org/W2969697205","https://openalex.org/W3007487674","https://openalex.org/W3033607383","https://openalex.org/W4250246477","https://openalex.org/W4253695808"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2390598893","https://openalex.org/W2390763783","https://openalex.org/W3037010675","https://openalex.org/W2354218174","https://openalex.org/W2054854124","https://openalex.org/W2367988544","https://openalex.org/W2577231901","https://openalex.org/W1918349232","https://openalex.org/W2894585493","https://openalex.org/W2138431786"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"quest":[1],"to":[2,14,25,29,43,99,118],"create":[3],"machines":[4],"that":[5,22],"can":[6,23,150,157],"solve":[7],"problems":[8],"as":[9],"humans":[10],"do":[11],"leads":[12],"us":[13],"intelligent":[15,46,69,92,134],"control.":[16],"This":[17,114],"field":[18],"encompasses":[19],"control":[20,50,70,93,135,155],"systems":[21,51,156],"adapt":[24],"changes":[26],"and":[27,59,71,111,123,137],"learn":[28],"improve":[30],"their":[31,55,138],"actions\u2014traits":[32],"typically":[33],"associated":[34],"with":[35],"human":[36],"intelligence.":[37],"In":[38],"this":[39,84,148],"work":[40],"we":[41,62,86,128],"seek":[42],"determine":[44],"how":[45],"these":[47],"classes":[48],"of":[49,57,66,83,91,121,133,144],"are":[52],"by":[53],"quantifying":[54],"level":[56],"adaptability":[58],"learning.":[60],"First":[61],"describe":[63],"the":[64,80,97,107,109,112,142],"stages":[65],"development":[67],"towards":[68],"present":[72],"a":[73,88,119],"definition":[74],"based":[75,146],"on":[76,79,147],"literature.":[77],"Based":[78],"key":[81],"elements":[82],"definition,":[85],"propose":[87],"novel":[89],"taxonomy":[90,115,149],"methods,":[94],"which":[95,100,127],"assesses":[96],"extent":[98],"they":[101],"handle":[102],"uncertainties":[103],"in":[104],"three":[105],"areas:":[106],"environment,":[108],"controller,":[110],"goals.":[113],"is":[116],"applicable":[117],"variety":[120],"robotic":[122],"other":[124],"autonomous":[125],"systems,":[126],"demonstrate":[129],"through":[130],"several":[131],"examples":[132],"methods":[136],"classifications.":[139],"Looking":[140],"at":[141],"spread":[143],"classifications":[145],"help":[151],"researchers":[152],"identify":[153],"where":[154],"be":[158],"made":[159],"more":[160],"intelligent.":[161]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-30T17:31:21.811387","created_date":"2020-09-01T00:00:00"}