{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3192060801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","title":"Citizen Perceptions of Fake News in Spain: Socioeconomic, Demographic, and Ideological Differences","display_name":"Citizen Perceptions of Fake News in Spain: Socioeconomic, Demographic, and Ideological Differences","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-08-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3192060801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","mag":"3192060801"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/publications9030035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/9/3/35/pdf?version=1628736655","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738007992","display_name":"Publications","issn_l":"2304-6775","issn":["2304-6775"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Publications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/9/3/35/pdf?version=1628736655","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003498311","display_name":"David Blanco\u2010Herrero","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7414-2998"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184999862","display_name":"Universidad de Salamanca","ror":"https://ror.org/02f40zc51","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"David Blanco-Herrero","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061074458","display_name":"Javier J. Amores","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7856-5392"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184999862","display_name":"Universidad de Salamanca","ror":"https://ror.org/02f40zc51","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Javier J. Amores","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041814033","display_name":"Patricia S\u00e1nchez\u2010Holgado","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6253-7087"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184999862","display_name":"Universidad de Salamanca","ror":"https://ror.org/02f40zc51","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Patricia S\u00e1nchez-Holgado","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Campus Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5003498311"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":5.3091,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":21,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95475471,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"3","first_page":"35","last_page":"35"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11147","display_name":"Misinformation and Its Impacts","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11147","display_name":"Misinformation and Its Impacts","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10557","display_name":"Social Media and Politics","score":0.9970999956130981,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3315","display_name":"Communication"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.9909999966621399,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/phenomenon","display_name":"Phenomenon","score":0.8491179943084717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/disinformation","display_name":"Disinformation","score":0.7970046997070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/perspective","display_name":"Perspective (graphical)","score":0.644600510597229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/skepticism","display_name":"Skepticism","score":0.6161728501319885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/perception","display_name":"Perception","score":0.6019272208213806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ideology","display_name":"Ideology","score":0.5425520539283752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fake-news","display_name":"Fake news","score":0.5379012823104858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/misinformation","display_name":"Misinformation","score":0.5326371192932129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-media","display_name":"Social media","score":0.5136803984642029},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/population","display_name":"Population","score":0.5048061609268188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/socioeconomic-status","display_name":"Socioeconomic status","score":0.46636733412742615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/news-media","display_name":"News media","score":0.41974180936813354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.4152994155883789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.40434619784355164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.3962947130203247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/media-studies","display_name":"Media studies","score":0.24675220251083374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sociology","display_name":"Sociology","score":0.23412898182868958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/demography","display_name":"Demography","score":0.15783420205116272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/politics","display_name":"Politics","score":0.14480435848236084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/law","display_name":"Law","score":0.06891235709190369}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50335755","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483247","display_name":"Phenomenon","level":2,"score":0.8491179943084717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776552730","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189656","display_name":"Disinformation","level":3,"score":0.7970046997070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12713177","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1900281","display_name":"Perspective (graphical)","level":2,"score":0.644600510597229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18296254","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1395219","display_name":"Skepticism","level":2,"score":0.6161728501319885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26760741","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160402","display_name":"Perception","level":2,"score":0.6019272208213806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158071213","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7257","display_name":"Ideology","level":3,"score":0.5425520539283752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779756789","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28549308","display_name":"Fake news","level":2,"score":0.5379012823104858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776990098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13579947","display_name":"Misinformation","level":2,"score":0.5326371192932129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C518677369","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202833","display_name":"Social media","level":2,"score":0.5136803984642029},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2908647359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2625603","display_name":"Population","level":2,"score":0.5048061609268188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147077947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1515895","display_name":"Socioeconomic status","level":3,"score":0.46636733412742615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C529147693","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1193236","display_name":"News media","level":2,"score":0.41974180936813354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4152994155883789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.40434619784355164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.3962947130203247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29595303","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165650","display_name":"Media studies","level":1,"score":0.24675220251083374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.23412898182868958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.15783420205116272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.14480435848236084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.06891235709190369},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/publications9030035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/9/3/35/pdf?version=1628736655","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738007992","display_name":"Publications","issn_l":"2304-6775","issn":["2304-6775"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Publications","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:gam:jpubli:v:9:y:2021:i:3:p:35-:d:612685","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/9/3/35/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:0c7cb9f73c73433cbce695a4400e3707","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/0c7cb9f73c73433cbce695a4400e3707","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Publications, Vol 9, Iss 3, p 35 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:gredos.usal.es:10366/160807","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10366/160807","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196290","display_name":"Gredos (University of Salamanca)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I184999862","host_organization_name":"Universidad de Salamanca","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184999862"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/2304-6775/9/3/35/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Publications; Volume 9; Issue 3; Pages: 35","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/publications9030035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9030035","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6775/9/3/35/pdf?version=1628736655","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738007992","display_name":"Publications","issn_l":"2304-6775","issn":["2304-6775"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Publications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/5","score":0.6100000143051147,"display_name":"Gender equality"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2801401313","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FCT-18-13437","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326822","funder_display_name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola para la Ciencia y la Tecnolog\u00eda"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5507169117","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FPU18/01455","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320315062","funder_display_name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320315062","display_name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320326822","display_name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola para la Ciencia y la Tecnolog\u00eda","ror":"https://ror.org/034thb936"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3192060801.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3192060801.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":51,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1986776260","https://openalex.org/W1987354374","https://openalex.org/W2001185702","https://openalex.org/W2232384272","https://openalex.org/W2582561810","https://openalex.org/W2626653630","https://openalex.org/W2737827343","https://openalex.org/W2787114955","https://openalex.org/W2790166049","https://openalex.org/W2791045616","https://openalex.org/W2793255598","https://openalex.org/W2795484999","https://openalex.org/W2796536780","https://openalex.org/W2797202416","https://openalex.org/W2804365752","https://openalex.org/W2886916242","https://openalex.org/W2891163418","https://openalex.org/W2903015761","https://openalex.org/W2910027323","https://openalex.org/W2911955562","https://openalex.org/W2912090561","https://openalex.org/W2934271216","https://openalex.org/W2949729647","https://openalex.org/W2950188319","https://openalex.org/W2951039814","https://openalex.org/W2951444358","https://openalex.org/W2952206427","https://openalex.org/W2953004111","https://openalex.org/W2954619043","https://openalex.org/W2955374740","https://openalex.org/W2971846292","https://openalex.org/W2986624110","https://openalex.org/W2989851933","https://openalex.org/W3004004573","https://openalex.org/W3010887396","https://openalex.org/W3022024046","https://openalex.org/W3026748684","https://openalex.org/W3042069286","https://openalex.org/W3092018832","https://openalex.org/W3095440586","https://openalex.org/W3095911465","https://openalex.org/W3102867977","https://openalex.org/W3108297683","https://openalex.org/W3121274724","https://openalex.org/W3125618971","https://openalex.org/W4243467040","https://openalex.org/W4246291669","https://openalex.org/W6741154936","https://openalex.org/W6758057065","https://openalex.org/W6764323562","https://openalex.org/W6785255693"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3081379046","https://openalex.org/W2100028027","https://openalex.org/W4310502242","https://openalex.org/W4304145139","https://openalex.org/W3198351040","https://openalex.org/W3106787879","https://openalex.org/W3134802290","https://openalex.org/W2994676997","https://openalex.org/W4321198019","https://openalex.org/W4246555607"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Although":[0],"the":[1,25,35,43,57,69,81,111,140,146,156,162,192,202],"phenomenon":[2,16,51],"of":[3,27,37,72,85,121,142,149,158,165,183,194,207],"disinformation":[4],"and,":[5],"specifically,":[6],"fake":[7,61,86,150,166,208],"news":[8,62,87,151,167],"has":[9,17],"become":[10],"especially":[11],"serious":[12],"and":[13,83,90,115,175,189,204],"problematic,":[14],"this":[15,38,50,73,101,132],"not":[18],"been":[19],"widely":[20],"addressed":[21],"in":[22,34,78,107,144],"academia":[23],"from":[24],"perspective":[26],"consumers,":[28],"who":[29],"play":[30],"a":[31,119,180],"relevant":[32],"role":[33],"spread":[36],"content.":[39],"For":[40],"that":[41,135],"reason,":[42],"present":[44],"study":[45,74,133],"focuses":[46],"on":[47,98],"determining":[48],"how":[49],"is":[52,88,152],"perceived":[53,203],"by":[54,65,118,173],"citizens,":[55],"as":[56,177],"strategies":[58],"to":[59,76,99,169,197],"counteract":[60,100],"are":[63,139],"affected":[64,172],"such":[66],"opinions.":[67],"Thus,":[68],"main":[70,130],"objective":[71],"was":[75,105,116,179],"identify":[77],"which":[79,145,154],"media":[80,137,143,195],"perception":[82],"experience":[84],"greatest":[89,147],"thus":[91],"determine":[92],"what":[93],"platforms":[94,138],"should":[95],"be":[96,170,198],"focused":[97],"phenomenon.":[102],"A":[103],"survey":[104],"conducted":[106],"October":[108],"2020,":[109],"among":[110,186],"Spanish":[112],"adult":[113],"population":[114],"completed":[117],"total":[120],"423":[122],"people":[123,188],"(with":[124],"421":[125],"valid":[126],"answers).":[127],"Among":[128],"its":[129],"findings,":[131],"determined":[134],"social":[136],"type":[141],"amount":[148],"perceived,":[153],"confirms":[155],"suggestions":[157],"previous":[159],"studies.":[160],"Furthermore,":[161],"experienced":[163,205],"presence":[164,206],"seems":[168,196],"primarily":[171],"age":[174],"gender,":[176],"there":[178],"higher":[181],"level":[182],"skepticism":[184],"observed":[185],"young":[187],"women.":[190],"Additionally,":[191],"use":[193],"positively":[199],"correlated":[200],"with":[201],"news.":[209]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-04-04T16:13:02.066488","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}