{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4394962922","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8040034","title":"EEG, Pupil Dilations, and Other Physiological Measures of Working Memory Load in the Sternberg Task","display_name":"EEG, Pupil Dilations, and Other Physiological Measures of Working Memory Load in the Sternberg Task","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-04-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4394962922","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8040034"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/mti8040034","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8040034","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2414-4088/8/4/34/pdf?version=1713515784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210226272","display_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","issn_l":"2414-4088","issn":["2414-4088"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2414-4088/8/4/34/pdf?version=1713515784","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013239314","display_name":"Mohammad Ahmadi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0523-213X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I154130895","display_name":"University of Auckland","ror":"https://ror.org/03b94tp07","country_code":"NZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]}],"countries":["NZ"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Ahmadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","of , ,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0523-213X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"of , ,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048757023","display_name":"Samantha Michalka","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-5295"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137428128","display_name":"Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering","ror":"https://ror.org/000zamq06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137428128"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Samantha W. Michalka","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational Neuroscience and Engineering, Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA 02492, USA","of , ,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-5295","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational Neuroscience and Engineering, Olin College of Engineering, Needham, MA 02492, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137428128"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"of , ,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5091987241","display_name":"Marzieh Ahmadi Najafabadi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2813-1171"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39470171","display_name":"Ontario Tech University","ror":"https://ror.org/016zre027","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39470171"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marzieh Ahmadi Najafabadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Science, Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON L1G0C5, Canada","of , ,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2813-1171","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Science, Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON L1G0C5, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39470171"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"of , ,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108818069","display_name":"Burkhard C. W\u00fcnsche","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I154130895","display_name":"University of Auckland","ror":"https://ror.org/03b94tp07","country_code":"NZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]}],"countries":["NZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Burkhard C. W\u00fcnsche","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","of , ,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8013-4118","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"of , ,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5021195349","display_name":"Mark Billinghurst","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4172-6759"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I154130895","display_name":"University of Auckland","ror":"https://ror.org/03b94tp07","country_code":"NZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]}],"countries":["NZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mark Billinghurst","raw_affiliation_strings":["Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","of , ,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4172-6759","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"of , ,","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5013239314"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I154130895"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":2.5816,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.8909376,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":"4","first_page":"34","last_page":"34"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11577","display_name":"Cognitive Abilities and Testing","score":0.9800999760627747,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11577","display_name":"Cognitive Abilities and Testing","score":0.9800999760627747,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10042","display_name":"Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies","score":0.9760000109672546,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10429","display_name":"EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces","score":0.9491999745368958,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.7467088103294373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pupil","display_name":"Pupil","score":0.7328848242759705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electroencephalography","display_name":"Electroencephalography","score":0.7084757685661316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/working-memory","display_name":"Working memory","score":0.6261551976203918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-psychology","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","score":0.5095880031585693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pupil-diameter","display_name":"Pupil diameter","score":0.5061551928520203},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.43106886744499207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/audiology","display_name":"Audiology","score":0.36781319975852966},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.3667348027229309},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/neuroscience","display_name":"Neuroscience","score":0.23052233457565308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.17652669548988342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.09532970190048218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.051642417907714844}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.7467088103294373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777394604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173318","display_name":"Pupil","level":2,"score":0.7328848242759705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C522805319","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179965","display_name":"Electroencephalography","level":2,"score":0.7084757685661316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21963081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11337567","display_name":"Working memory","level":3,"score":0.6261551976203918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.5095880031585693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987277156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173318","display_name":"Pupil diameter","level":3,"score":0.5061551928520203},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.43106886744499207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C548259974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q569965","display_name":"Audiology","level":1,"score":0.36781319975852966},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3667348027229309},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.23052233457565308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.17652669548988342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.09532970190048218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.051642417907714844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/mti8040034","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8040034","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2414-4088/8/4/34/pdf?version=1713515784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210226272","display_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","issn_l":"2414-4088","issn":["2414-4088"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:60dd7746a10047a2914fd95fbaa8c939","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/60dd7746a10047a2914fd95fbaa8c939","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, Vol 8, Iss 4, p 34 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/mti8040034","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/mti8040034","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2414-4088/8/4/34/pdf?version=1713515784","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210226272","display_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","issn_l":"2414-4088","issn":["2414-4088"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimodal Technologies and Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.49000000953674316,"display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4394962922.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4394962922.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":103,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1970126268","https://openalex.org/W1971915316","https://openalex.org/W1972614762","https://openalex.org/W1975825368","https://openalex.org/W1976339519","https://openalex.org/W1980877068","https://openalex.org/W1983839088","https://openalex.org/W1985921148","https://openalex.org/W1994193006","https://openalex.org/W1998977696","https://openalex.org/W2004599511","https://openalex.org/W2006228232","https://openalex.org/W2010318514","https://openalex.org/W2014026338","https://openalex.org/W2029570806","https://openalex.org/W2032416308","https://openalex.org/W2033664463","https://openalex.org/W2034651857","https://openalex.org/W2036178656","https://openalex.org/W2040084725","https://openalex.org/W2044377575","https://openalex.org/W2044873014","https://openalex.org/W2048939758","https://openalex.org/W2065073464","https://openalex.org/W2069918525","https://openalex.org/W2074919515","https://openalex.org/W2077546866","https://openalex.org/W2078090509","https://openalex.org/W2080898270","https://openalex.org/W2098330912","https://openalex.org/W2099082130","https://openalex.org/W2101206558","https://openalex.org/W2106654511","https://openalex.org/W2111517084","https://openalex.org/W2113555622","https://openalex.org/W2114309687","https://openalex.org/W2118114225","https://openalex.org/W2119981748","https://openalex.org/W2122311608","https://openalex.org/W2127846949","https://openalex.org/W2128495200","https://openalex.org/W2129868883","https://openalex.org/W2133485642","https://openalex.org/W2134598164","https://openalex.org/W2137070227","https://openalex.org/W2137576942","https://openalex.org/W2141019025","https://openalex.org/W2157289187","https://openalex.org/W2162113618","https://openalex.org/W2164416159","https://openalex.org/W2166667242","https://openalex.org/W2171801645","https://openalex.org/W2203197981","https://openalex.org/W2254350311","https://openalex.org/W2320293077","https://openalex.org/W2413176824","https://openalex.org/W2461071842","https://openalex.org/W2520384474","https://openalex.org/W2529275262","https://openalex.org/W2579555219","https://openalex.org/W2587726199","https://openalex.org/W2759190050","https://openalex.org/W2774167400","https://openalex.org/W2780930765","https://openalex.org/W2786051348","https://openalex.org/W2791931212","https://openalex.org/W2795960359","https://openalex.org/W2808195577","https://openalex.org/W2890128731","https://openalex.org/W2892374885","https://openalex.org/W2900727064","https://openalex.org/W2910271335","https://openalex.org/W2920646873","https://openalex.org/W2921169636","https://openalex.org/W2943275803","https://openalex.org/W2953127026","https://openalex.org/W2956571395","https://openalex.org/W2966883466","https://openalex.org/W2979875836","https://openalex.org/W2981004543","https://openalex.org/W2983152572","https://openalex.org/W3020839064","https://openalex.org/W3026845050","https://openalex.org/W3029067794","https://openalex.org/W3033146535","https://openalex.org/W3033498880","https://openalex.org/W3080112302","https://openalex.org/W3095623676","https://openalex.org/W3108672319","https://openalex.org/W3114883817","https://openalex.org/W4220781804","https://openalex.org/W4240553276","https://openalex.org/W4241819366","https://openalex.org/W4254431624","https://openalex.org/W4309505660","https://openalex.org/W4367662608","https://openalex.org/W4387446101","https://openalex.org/W4387446326","https://openalex.org/W6644939029","https://openalex.org/W6679703381","https://openalex.org/W6715119522","https://openalex.org/W6746758037","https://openalex.org/W6760922607"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3129109613","https://openalex.org/W1992615944","https://openalex.org/W2034211124","https://openalex.org/W2014782052","https://openalex.org/W201322181","https://openalex.org/W2758745426","https://openalex.org/W4205668478","https://openalex.org/W2108893248","https://openalex.org/W2275104383","https://openalex.org/W2059606390"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"evidence":[1],"shows":[2],"that":[3,79,89,107,228,253,404],"physiological":[4,35,138,211,311],"cues,":[5],"such":[6],"as":[7,45,111,121,140,189,262,412],"pupil":[8],"dilation":[9],"(PD),":[10],"heart":[11],"rate":[12],"(HR),":[13],"skin":[14],"conductivity":[15],"(SC),":[16],"and":[17,53,150,164,181,198,205,233,248,275,341,352,358,366,376,396,407,432],"electroencephalography":[18],"(EEG),":[19],"can":[20],"indicate":[21],"cognitive":[22,419],"load":[23,420],"(CL)":[24],"in":[25,40,50,76,102,126,132,153,175,219,267,290,292,348,373,398,421],"users":[26],"while":[27],"performing":[28],"tasks.":[29,424],"This":[30],"paper":[31],"aims":[32],"to":[33,81,97,305],"investigate":[34,306],"(multimodal)":[36],"measurement":[37,202,417],"of":[38,68,74,92,100,115,124,136,142,168,203,210,265,294,309,355,383,418,429],"CL":[39,91,116,144,176,218,291,321,342,367,397],"a":[41,61,172,238],"Sternberg":[42,62,155,187,422],"memory":[43,63,156,423],"task":[44,94,109,118,169],"the":[46,72,77,90,93,98,122,134,148,154,186,196,208,224,231,254,263,268,273,279,295,307,327,336,344,349,356,364,369,374,384,394,416,430],"difficulty":[47,69,119,170],"level":[48],"increases":[49,120,261],"both":[51,147,195,220,230,272],"maintenance":[52,149,197,232,274,296,328],"probe":[54,151,199,234,276,298,385],"phases.":[55,221,277,299],"For":[56],"this":[57,108],"purpose,":[58],"we":[59,226],"designed":[60],"test":[64,188,191],"with":[65,171,217,223,287],"four":[66,143,166],"levels":[67,145,167],"determined":[70],"by":[71],"number":[73,99,123,264],"letters":[75,101,125,266],"words":[78,127,269],"need":[80],"be":[82,410],"remembered.":[83],"Our":[84,158,323],"behavioral":[85],"performance":[86],"results":[87,402],"show":[88,284,389],"is":[95],"related":[96],"non-semantic":[103],"words,":[104],"which":[105],"confirms":[106],"serves":[110],"an":[112,288],"appropriate":[113],"metric":[114],"(the":[117],"increases).":[128],"We":[129,250,425],"were":[130],"interested":[131],"investigating":[133],"suitability":[135],"multimodal":[137],"measures":[139],"correlates":[141],"for":[146,201,229,271,313,326,343,368,415,434],"phases":[152,200],"task.":[157],"motivation":[159],"was":[160,237,303],"to:":[161],"(1)":[162],"design":[163],"create":[165],"gradual":[173],"increase":[174,289],"rather":[177],"than":[178],"just":[179],"high":[180,314],"low":[182,318],"CL,":[183,204],"(2)":[184],"use":[185],"our":[190,380],"bed,":[192],"(3)":[193],"explore":[194,207],"(4)":[206],"correlation":[209,286,308],"cues":[212],"(PD,":[213],"HR,":[214],"SC,":[215,406],"EEG)":[216],"Testing":[222],"system,":[225],"found":[227,330],"phases,":[235],"there":[236],"significant":[239,260,331,359],"positive":[240,332,360],"linear":[241,333,361,391],"relationship":[242,392],"between":[243,335,363,393],"average":[244,255],"baseline":[245,256],"corrected":[246,257],"PD":[247],"CL.":[249],"also":[251],"observed":[252],"SC":[258],"showed":[259],"increased":[270],"However,":[278,379],"HR":[280],"analysis":[281,302,325,382],"did":[282,387],"not":[283,388],"any":[285,390,399],"either":[293],"or":[297],"An":[300],"additional":[301],"conducted":[304],"these":[310],"signals":[312],"(seven-letter":[315],"words)":[316,320],"versus":[317],"(four-letter":[319],"loads.":[322],"EEG":[324,381,408],"phase":[329,386],"relationships":[334,362],"power":[337],"spectral":[338],"density":[339],"(PSD)":[340],"upper":[345],"alpha":[346,371],"bands":[347],"centrotemporal,":[350],"frontal,":[351],"occipitoparietal":[353,377],"regions":[354],"brain":[357],"PSD":[365,395],"lower":[370],"band":[372],"frontal":[375],"regions.":[378],"region.":[400],"These":[401],"suggest":[403],"PD,":[405],"could":[409],"used":[411],"suitable":[413],"metrics":[414],"discuss":[426],"this,":[427],"limitations":[428],"study,":[431],"directions":[433],"future":[435],"work.":[436]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-16T07:32:37.131356","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}